INTRODUCTION

Two major sites of Indus Valley Civilisation:

• Harappa in North and
• Mohenjodaro in South

These sites showcase earliest examples of civic planning, horses, market, storage facilities, and public bath. Also, statues in stone, bronze and terracotta.

Important sites in India are:

• Lothal and Dholavira ­: Gujarat
• Rakhigari : Haryana
• Ropar : Punjab
• Kalibangan and Balathal : Rajasthan
• Daimabad : Maharashtra

Unique features of Indus Valley Art

Some of the unique features of the Indus art are discussed below:

• Stone Statues
• Two male figures: A torso in red sandstone; A bearded man in steatite.
• Draped shawl decorated with trefoil patterns.
• Bronze Casting
• During Harappans
• Bronze statues made using ‘lost-wax’ technique
• The most popular is a copper statue of Dancing Girl.
• Terracota
• Though crude forms but realistic at Gujarat and Kalibangan sites. Representing mother goddess.
• Seals
• With figures of animals such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant etc.
• Seals produced mainly for commercial purposes.
• Pashupati Seal – Some identify it as female deity. The figure in center surrounded by animals.
• Pottery
• Fine wheel-made wares, plain pottery is more common than painted ones.
• Polychrome pottery with geometrical designs.
• Perforated pottery probably used for liquor.
• Beads and Ornaments
• Large variety found at Mohenjodaro & Lothal include necklaces of gold & semi-precious stones.
• At Farmana in Haryana, dead bodies buried with ornaments.
• Spinning of cotton & wool was very common.

Architecture in Indus Valley

The most striking feature of the Harappa and Mohejodaro is remarkable way of town planning.

Some of the important points to consider are:

• Rectangular Grid Pattern: The towns were laid out in rectangular grid pattern. The roads ran in North-South and East-West direction. They cut each other in right angles.
• Harappans used burnt mud bricks of standardised dimensions for the purpose of building houses, public baths and public buildings.
• The city was divided into two parts:
• Upraised Citadel: Here, large buildings like granaries, administrative buildings, pillared halls and courtyard were found.
• Lower-part of city: Here, houses of the common people or village people or working people are found.
• Advanced drainage system: Small drains from each house were connected to larger drains running alongside the main roads. Proper hygiene was maintained in both public and personal sphere.
• Most important buildings found in excavation sites are:
• Great bath: The public bath excavated in Mohenjodaro is the most famous. These baths had galleries and rooms.
• Granaries: These were made to store grains. These were made on raised platforms.
• Assembly Hall: These were made in the cities for the gathering of the people.

Sculptures of Indus Valley

The most common sculptures found during Harappan Civilization were seals, bronze figures and potteries.

Seals

• Different types of seals are found.
• Steatite, a soft stone, was the most common material used to make seals.
• Other materials were agatem chert, copper, terracotta, copper, gold and ivory.
• Pictographic script: This script is found on seals. It is written right to left on one line and left to right on next line. It is bi-directional writing style.
• Animal Impressions: Some seals have animal motifs, some of the animals were, unicorn, humped bull, bison, ibex, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, goat etc.
• Half animal and half- animal images are also found on the seals.

Uses of Seals

• For commercial purposes.
• For using them as amulets (tabeez).
• For educational purposes.

Bronze Figures

• Bronze Casting
• The bronze stateues were made using lost wax technique or Cire Perdue.
• In this technique, wax figures are first coated with wet clay and allowed to dry. The clay coated figures are then heated, allowing the wax inside to melt. The wax is then poured out through a tiny hole and liquid metal is poured inside the hollow mould. After the metal has cooled down and solidifies, the clay coat is removed and a metal figure of the same shape as the wax figure is obtained.
• The Dancing Girl
• It is the world’s oldest bronze sculpture.
• It is a statue of naked girl wearing only ornaments that are bangles and amulet and bracelet. She stands in tribhanga dancing posture.

Terracotta

• Terracotta means the use of fire baked clay for making sculptures.
• Pinching Method was used to make these figures.
• It was used by the poor class to make toys, animal figures and miniature carts and wheels etc.
• The Mother Goddess Figure
• It is a figure of a standing female wearing a necklace and a fan-shaped headgear. It was probably worshipped.

Pottery

Two kinds of pottery are found near the excavation site: plain potter and painted pottery.

• Plain Pottery
• It was used for household purposes, mainly for storage of water and grains.
• These potteries looked inexpensive and were probably used by the lower class.
• Painted pottery
• It was also called Red and Black Pottery.
• The background is of red color and glossy black color is used to make designs.
• Animal figures, geometric patterns, trees designs were found on these potteries.
• Miniature vessels were used for decorative purposes.
• Some potteries have large holes on bottom and small holes across the sides. These are called Perforated potteries.

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INTRODUCTION

The scientific practice of identifying, naming and grouping of the living organisms is called classification. Therefore, it is nothing but categorisation of organisms in different groups.

Taxonomy is the branch of biology which deals with the classification of living organisms. Under this branch, organisms are named and described as well.

Systematics is the branch of biology which deals with grouping and arranging various organisms in hierarchical classification.

Advantages of Classification

• It helps to identify different organisms and place them under particular groups.
• It provides pattern and helps in systematic study of organisms.
• It shows relationship between different organisms.
• It helps to understand the process of evolution from the simple to complex organisms.

Read further for all the five kingdom classification and its notes.

Macro and Micro Classification

Macro Classification

• Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 divided all organisms into two kingdoms in his book Systema Nature as:
• Plantae – The Kingdom of Plants
• Animalia – The Kingdom of Animals
• Since, organisms like bacteria, virus and fungi were left out of this classification, therefore, new classification was considered.

Five Kingdom Classifications

• Five kingdom classification was proposed by R. H. Whittaker in 1969 based on three criteria:
• Cell structure of the organism
• Body Structure of the organism
• Mode of nutrition of the organism
• It is also called the Micro classification or Modern classification of the organisms.

Monera

It includes all unicellular prokaryotic organisms like bacteria and cyanobacteria

These organisms are microscopic i.e. cannot be seen with naked eyes.

The cell does not have well defined nucleus. The DNA is present in the cell without being enclosed by nuclear membrane.

They do not have cell organelles. The cell has rigid cell wall.

For example:

• Blue green algae
• bacteria

Protista

·It includes unicellular plants and animals.

·They are eukaryotic i.e. they have a well – defined nucleus with a nuclear membrane.

·The cell has cell organelles.

·These organisms are usually found in aquatic habitat.

Some examples include:

• Euglena
• Amoeba
• Paramecium

Fungi

It includes non-green plants.

·They are multicellular and eukaryotic organisms.

·These are heterotrophs i.e. they cannot make their own food.

·It has saprophytic mode of nutrition i.e. they get their food from dead and decaying matter.

·They are made of thread-like hyphae structure.

·The green or black substance found on rotten bread is fungi only.

For example:

• Mushroom
• Mucor
• Albugo
• Moulds

Plantae

It includes all the green plants except algae and organisms already belonging to Monera or Protista.

·These are multicellular and eukaryotic plants.

·They have Chlorophyll that makes the process of photosynthesis possible.

·These are autotrophs i.e. they make their own food.

For example:

• Bryophytes
• Petridophytes
• Gymnosperms
• Angiosperms

Animalia

All animals except Protozoa come under this group.

·These are multicellular animals.

·The cell structure is well developed. The DNA and RNA are present in the nucleus.

·The chlorophyll and cell wall are absent.

·These are heterotrophs i.e. the cell cannot make food on its own.

For example:

• Human
• Lion
• Whale

Bionomial Nomenclature

• The naming of an organism is called Nomenclature.
• Carolus Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy.
• A proper system to name the organisms was needed so that by the name could reflect the group it belongs to.
• Every organism is represented by a proper name.
• In binomial nomenclature, the name of an organism is composed of two words in Latin language.
• The first word is Genus and is called the Generic name. It always starts with capital letter.
• The second word refers to the name of the species and is called the Specific name. The first letter is written with small alphabet.

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In the year 2004, it was decided by the Government of India to declare Indian Languages meeting certain requirements as "Classical language” and Tamil was declared as a Classical Language by the Government of India in June 2004.

Sanskrit is already having a special status in India under Article 351 and Sanskrit was declared as a classical language in the year 2005.

Classification of Indian Languages

The Indian languagesbelong to major 6 language families:

• Indo-Aryan Group
• Dravidian Group
• Sino-Tibetian Group
• Negroid
• Austic (Mon-Khmer)
• Others

Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages are used by a large majority of India’s population. The language families divide roughly into geographic groups.

• Languages of the Indo-Aryan group are spoken mainly in Northern and Central regions.
• The languages of Southern India are mainly of the Dravidian group.
• Some ethnic groups in Assam and other parts of Eastern India speak languages of Mon-Khmer group.
• People in the Northern Himalayan region and near the Burmese border speak Sino-Tibetan languages.
• Speakers of 54 different languages of Indo-Aryan family make up about three-quarters of India’s population.
• Twenty Dravidian languages are spoken by nearly a quarter of the people.
• Speakers of 20 Mon-Khmer language and 98 Sino-Tibetan languages together make up about 2 per cent of the population.

Criteria for Classical languages in India

In the year 2006, the Government of India declared that the following are the criteria to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered and declared as classical languages:

1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years.
2. A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers.
3. The literary tradition is original and not borrowed from another speech community.
4. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

Currently six languages enjoy the status of Classical languages in India:

• Tamil (2004)
• Sanskrit (2005)
• Kannada and Telegu (200
• Malayalam (2013)
• Odiya (2014)

What are the benefits enjoyed by the Classical languages?

Once the status of Classical language is given to the language, then the following benefits are accredited to the language:

1. Two major annual international awards for scholars of eminence in classical Indian languages.
2. A Centre of Excellence for studies in Classical Languages is set up.
3. The University Grants Commission is requested to create, to start with at least in the Central Universities, a certain number of Professional Chairs for the Classical Languages so declared.

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INTRODUCTION

·The story of Indian Literature extends back over more than 5000 years.

·It includes the religious classics of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

·Apart from that, literature from the courts of Indian monarchs, oral poetry and song and modern verse and prose expressing contemporary ideas.

·Although each successive generation has added its own contribution to Indian literature the ancient texts are still influential. Until modern times, literature usually reached its audience through performance and recitation. Religious texts and stories, often of enormous length, were memorized and handed down orally from one generation to the next. So, although about half the population of Southern Asia are unable to read or write, the culture of the region is highly developed.

·Theliterature of the Indian subcontinent falls into three periods:

Ø The Ancient Period: primarily dominated by Sanskrit, lasting up to about A.D. 1000

Ø The Medieval Period: From about 1000 A.D to early 1800 (during which time the regional languages developed)

Ø The Modern Period: it is influenced by European culture.

·In the first two periods, most literature was in verse or in the form of an epigram (a short, clever poem), though prose was also used.

·In modern period, the use of prose has become fully developed.

·Indian literature has been written in many languages. Each language has made its own contribution and expressed its uniqueness.

·The literature of a particular language has its own special form, symbols and nuances. Therefore, it is more logical to say that there are as many literatures in Indiaas languages which have flowered into literature.

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We all are aware that current affairs play an important role in UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation as the questions related to current affairs are seen in all 3 stages of exam that are, Prelims, Mains and Interview.

There is no defined syllabus for current affairs. Anything and everything under the sun come within the confines of current affairs.

As per UPSC syllabus candidate must have knowledge about current events about national and international events. It depends on the candidate himself or herself to prepare for this section.

As per the analysis of previous years papers one must prepare themselves for current affairs section by thorough reading of newspapers and magazines. The best newspapers recommended by the UPSC toppers are:

The Hindu

It is the most reliable newspaper. It does not play with words and give point to point information. It covers all the important details. The opinion section holds great importance and students even make notes based on the facts and information included in the opinion section. All the current affairs news is covered in the newspaper. It is one of the best sources of information for current affairs for UPSC IAS preparation.

The Indian Express

This paper is useful to read both positive and negative thoughts of any topic. Aspirants can read it to get neutral knowledge. The explanation page of the newspaper holds importance. Every important event is explained in concise manner. This would help in the preparation of current affairs for UPSC IAS preparation.

Business Standard

This newspaper covers all the national and international economic situation very well. Aspirants can read it to gain knowledge about economic crisis or any deals done between the countries. It covers the economic aspects of the country and apart from that the column section explains the necessary points clearly.

Hindi language aspirants can refer Hindi list of newspapers given below:

Dainik Bhaskar

It is the most read Hindi newspaper. They cover all the current affairs on daily basis. The column section of the newspaper covers the in depth analysis of the events taking place in the country. It is one of the best Hindi newspapers for UPSC IAS preparation.

Dainik Jagran

It is also reliable source of information and is associated with National newspaper association. One can rely on this newspaper for the current affair news

Navbharat

Aspirants can refer this newspaper to read national current affairs content. They rely more on Indian contemporary issues.

Best Magazines For Upsc Ias Preparation

Magazines are extra reading materials which are written by authors, experts and it helps candidate to expand the range of opinions. Aspirants just need to read some articles from these magazines to score great marks. In addition, they can note down the important points that can help them in writing essays and mains answers.

Yojana

It is the best magazines recommended by UPSC toppers. It deals with socio economic issues of Indian interests and is published by I&B Ministry, Government of India.

It is observed that every year one or two essays is seen in UPSC exam directly from this magazine. It covers important topics like federalism, agriculture, and budget etc. It is a government magazine so you will get to read both pros and cons of every topic. One can rely on

Kurukshtera

This is published by Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. This deals with all rural and agricultural issues and as per the trend UPSC examinations are dealing now with environment and rural issues.

Economic And Political Weekly

This magazine deals with all economic and political issues, sociology, and environmental issues. Here the articles are published by experts, political activists. The analysis covered in this magazine is in-depth. It is not required to read it thoroughly for current affairs for UPSC IAS preparation. However, if one can avail the short points of the articles then it can make great difference in the level of preparation.

Down To Earth

This magazine deals with topics like housing, health, and environment. As the weightage of environment related issues have increased in years, therefore it is the best magazine.

World Focus

It is foreign affairs magazine related to Indo-centric issues. Here, you will get to read India’s viewpoint on India foreign relations and the deals made by our Government.

These magazines and newspapers are the best options to prepare for current affairs for UPSC exams as they are reliable and have fact checked information. These are easily available in all parts of our country. All aspirants should go through the list once before starting the preparation.

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