INTRODUCTION

Biology is the most important of all core science subjects.

Morphology means the study of forms and features of different parts of plants like leaves, roots, flower etc.

In this article we will learn about

·Roots

·Stem

·Flower

·Fruits

Bryophyta

·This group of plant lacks xylem and phloem.

·They also lack roots, stem and leaves. Thus, water transportation takes place through parenchyma.

Petridophyta

·This group of plants is found in wet places like forests and mountains.

·Plants have stem, roots and leaves.

·Examples: Ferns, Mosses

Phanerogamous Plant

·Plants of this group are well developed.

·They have roots, stem and leaves.

·Xylem and phloem are also well developed.

·It is further divided into two types:

Gymnosperm

·Trees and bushes form this group.

·Plants are woody, perennial and tall.

·The plant has naked seeds.

Angiosperm

·Roots, leaves, flowers and fruits are fully developed.

·The seeds are found inside the fruits.

·For example: Wheat, Lemon and potato etc.

Root System in Plants

·The absorption of water occurs through roots by diffusion, osmosis and other processes.

·The root develops from radicle.

·Root Hair: Water is absorbed from the soil by the root hair. The hair system of the roots is unicellular outgrowth of roots.

·The process by which these root hairs (hydrophilic substance) absorb water is called as imbibition.

·It helps in absorbing nutrients, water and moisture from the soil.

Two types of roots are:

1. Tap Root

·The main root with minor side roots grow deep into the soil is called taproot.

·It arises from the radicle of the plants.

·It occurs in dicots plants.

·For example: in Trees, shrubs and plants. Carrot, Reddish etc.

2. Adventitious Root

·The fine, thick hair like structure of root that spread sideways in all the direction is called adventitious root.

·It is also called fibrous root.

·It grows from the stem and leaves and not from the radicle.

·It occurs in monocots.

·For example: in Grasses, Onion etc.

Flower

Flower is the reproductive part of the plant.

The following are the parts of flower:

·Androecium

·Gynoecium

·Calyx

·Corolla

Two types of reproduction take place through flowers:

·Asexual Reproduction: Plant gives rise to new plant without seeds.

·Sexual Reproduction: Seeds give rise to new plants.

Stamens are the male reproductive part of the plant.

Pistil is the female reproductive part of the plant.

There are two types of flowers based on presence of stamen and pistil:

·Unisexual Flowers: Flowers which contain either only stamens or only pistil. For example, corn and papaya.

·Bisexual Flowers: Flowers which contain both stamen and pistil. For example, mustard, rose and others.

Fertililsation

·Male gametes: Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gamete.

·Female gamete: Ovary contains one or more ovules. Female gamete is formed in an ovule.

·The fusion of male gamete and the female gamete is called fertilisation.

·Fertilised egg is called zygote. Zygote develops into embryo.

Pollination

·The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.

·Self-pollination: If the pollen lands on the stigma of the flower or another flower of the same plant.

·Cross-pollination: When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of flower of different plant of same kind.

Fruit and Seed Formation

After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off.

The fruit is the ripened ovary. Fruit implies the edible part of the plant.

Four types of fruits on the arrangement are:

·Simple fruit: It develops from single ovary of a single flower and may be fleshy or dry. For example, tomato, banana.

·Aggregate fruit: It consists of a mass of small drupes each of which develop from separate ovary of a single flower. For example: raspberry and strawberry.

·Composite fruit: It develops from the ovaries of many flowers growing in a cluster. For example, Jackfruit and Pineapple.

·Accessory fruit: It contains tissue derived from plant parts other than the ovary. For example, Apple and pear.

The seed develops from the ovules.

The seed contains an embryo which is enclosed in a protective seed coat. Seed coat is the outer part of the seed. For example, mango seed has white colour seed coat, if you break it up, you will find seeds inside it.

Question?

Is Almond a fruit of seed?

Seed dispersal

·Seed dispersal is aided by wind, water and animals.

·Seed dispersal help the plants to:

1.Prevent overcrowding

2.Avoid competition for sunlight, water and minerals.

3.Invade new habitats.

Stem

·Stem is the growing part of the plant. It is erect, strong and grows away from the soil and towards the light.

·Leaves and branches arise from nodes.

·Stems are divided into different regions between the nodes.

·Apical bud: It is the growing apex of the stem is covered by numerous, tiny, developing leaves.

Functions of Stem:

·To support and hold leaves flowers and fruits.

·It conducts the water and minerals from roots to leaves and fruits.

·It also helps in storing food.

·It also helps in process of Photosynthesis.

Three types of Stem:

Underground Stem:

·Stems remain in the ground.

·They produce aerial shoots annually.

·Some of the forms are:

·Tuber – ex. Potato

·Corm – ex. Saffron

·Bulb – ex. Onion

·Rhizome -- Ginger

Aerial Stem:

·Some of the forms are:

·Stem tendril – ex. Passiflora

·Pylloclade – ex. Duranta

Sub-aerial Stem:

·Some of the forms are:

·Runner – ex. Doob grass

·Stolon – ex. Jasmine

Leaf

·It is green outgrowth from the stem.

·It is the primary sites for photosynthesis i.e. prepare food for the plant.

·Leaves are initiated in the apical bud (growing tip of a stem).

·Leaf of Aloe vera has liquid inside them.

·Leaves of cactus are modified into spines.

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INTRODUCTION

English is a subject of language. And like any other language, there are basic rules of grammar that needs to be followed while learning any language.

To learn English, the three basic requirements are:

Know the Basic Rules of the English Grammar

Learn as much vocabulary as possible.

Practice, practice and practice.

English language plays a very determining part in any government exam. If you’re aspiring for any such examination, you need to have a good command over English language.

In this course, we are going to build your concepts for a strong hold on English. And apart from that, we will provide a lot of questions for thorough practice.

Phrase

It is a group of words that have meaning. Or it is a group of related words.

Example: in the corner;

On the roof;

In the room

To eat dinner

Clause

A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and verb.

Independent clause – it is a complete sentence; can stand alone by itself.

Dependent (subordinate) clause– it expresses only a part of thought; it cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is a group of words that forms a part of a sentence and has a subject and a finite verb of its own.

How to find the type of Clause?

Clause can form a part of sentence or it could be a complete sentence in itself.

Example: Sita had a long career but she is remembered mainly for her early work.

The above sentence has 2 clauses.

Clause 1: Sita had a long career.

Clause 2: But she is remembered mainly for her early work.

Every sentence contains at least one main clause.

Main Clause: A main clause then may form a part of Complex or Compound sentences. But it also makes sense on its own.

Example: Varun was eating a hot dog.

Subordinate Clause: A subordinate clause depends on a main clause for its meaning.

**Together with main clause, a subordinate clause forms a part of a Complex sentence. **

Sentence

A sentence is an independent clause that may or may not be combined with other clauses to convey a complete and sometimes complex thought. Or it is a group of words that has a definite meaning and contains a Subject and Finite verb.

Example: He is in the corner;

She is on the roof;

Father was in the room

Structure of Sentences

Simple Sentence

Compound Sentence: Two or more main clause connected using Coordinate Conjunctions.

Complex Sentence: Principal Clause is connected with one or more subordinate clause using subordinate conjunction.

How to find the ‘Subject’?

Verb + who? Will answer the Subject

How to find the ‘Object’?

Verb + What? Or Whom? Will answer the Object.

Generally, an Indirect object comes before a Direct object.

If a direct object comes before indirect object, then it is mandatory to put – ‘to’, ‘of’ or ‘for’ before Indirect object.

Types of Sentences

1.Assertive

Affirmative

Subject + Verb + Object

Subject + Helping Verb + Main Verb + Object

Negative

Subject + Helping Verb + Not + Main Verb + Object

2.Interrogative

Yes/No

Helping Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object?

Not before Main Verb in Negative sentences.

Example: Do you know his name?

Descriptive

Wh + Helping Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object?

Wh – Wh family words.

Not before main verb

Example: Why do you not play well?

Imperative

Starts with First form of Verb – Come here

Starts with Let – Let me go

Starts with Don’t – Don’t talk in the class

Exclamatory

!

We won the match!

Optative

Starts with ‘May’ – Bless or Curse

May god bless you!

Tips:

The subject of a sentence will Never be in a prepositional phrase.

There is a Subject and Verb on both sides of the Conjunctionand Semicolon.

Direct Object: non-living

Indirect Object: Living

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INTRODUCTION

Plants take water and minerals from the soil through the roots and transport it to the leaves. The leaves prepare food for the plant, using water and carbon-dioxide during photosynthesis.

This process of photosynthesis prepares food for the plant which is necessary for energy to the cells. The cells use this energy to carry out vital activities of life. Therefore, food must be made available to each and every cell.

Thus, a proper system of transportation is required for the transportation of food, water and minerals. This system of transportation includes:

• Roots
• Leaves
• Xylem
• Phloem

Transport of Water and Minerals

Function of Roots

• Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots.
• The roots have root hair.
• The root hair is in the contact with the water present between the soil particles.
• The root hair increases the surface area of the root for absorption of water and mineral dissolved in the water or soil.

Vascular Tissue

• Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil.
• The vessels are made of special cells, forming vascular tissue.
• The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called xylem.
• The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connect roots to the leaves through the stem and branches and thus transport water to the entire plant.
• Leave synthesis the food which has to be transported to all the parts of the plant. This is done by phloem.

Transport of water

• In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots stem and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all the parts of the plant.
• At roots, cells in contact of soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference in the concentration of these ions between the root and soil. Water, therefore, moves into the root from the soil to eliminate the difference.
• This means there is steady movement of water into root xylem, creating a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards.
• However, this pressure by itself is unlikely to be enough to move water over the heights that we commonly see in plants. Plants use another strategy to move water in the xylem upwards to the highest points of the plant body.

Transpiration and its Benefits

• When the plant has an adequate supply of water, the water which is lost through the stomata is replaced by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
• That is, evaporation of water molecule from the cells of a leaf creates a suction which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots.
• The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.
• Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
• It also helps in transport of water is more important at night. During the day when the stomata are open, the transpiration pull becomes the major driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.

Transport of Food & other Substances

• The method of transportation of products of metabolic processes, particularly photosynthesis, from leaves, where they are formed, to other parts of the plant is called translocation.
• It occurs in phloem of vascular bundle.
• Besides, the phloem transports amino acids and other substances. These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
• The translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions.
• The transportation in phloem requires energy.
• Materials like sucrose are transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This allows the phloem to move material according to the plant’s needs.
• For example, sugar in root or stem tissue would be transported to the buds which need energy to grow.

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English language plays a very determining part in any government exam. If you’re aspiring for any such examination, you need to have a good command over English language.

There are some competitive examinations, where questions are provided in Hindi or Regional languages also, but the fact remains, that there is a separate section in every exam where your knowledge of English is tested. This section carries no option for any other language, so you are kind of stuck in it.

To ease this difficulty, you need to lay down special emphasis over your language preparation so that you don’t lose marks due to lack of knowledge of English. Now, if you’re someone who is not too good at English or is average in studies, you need not to worry. Just follow some tips and keep up the hard work, soon you’ll have the knowledge that you seek. So, let’s get started!

Grammar- Grammar is the main essence of any language and to know a language you must have command over grammar part. The day you realize that you need to prepare for English, the first step you should be doing is, to ace its grammar. To understand the question or to answer the question, you need to know about how sentences are formed and what they mean. Do not directly go for heavy-heavy books of grammar, start with basic school books. Start with learning Part of Speech, Tenses, Narration and Voice. At first learn the rules then try to apply them in practical life. Once you start getting familiar with the rules, focus on things like Modals, Prepositions, Adjectives, Gerund, and Infinitive etc. In a few months, you’ll notice a change in your orientation. You will have knowledge of rules and their application. Then you can try some standard books of grammar such as Wren & Martin orS.P.Bakshi.

Vocabulary- Once you get an idea about the grammar, you must go for Vocabulary. Start with learning the words which you use daily, try to know the name of things that you use daily. Grab any dictionary and try to learn as many new words as you can. But remember to revise and use those words, otherwise you’ll forget them soon. A very good source of learning new words can be newspapers. I would also suggest you to listen to English Songs, Podcasts and videos; they introduce you with new meanings every day. Apart from this, you can search for specific pdfs of Vocabulary for your exam; there are plenty of those available on the internet. A very standard book for Vocabulary is "Word Power Made Easy "by Norman Lewis. This book covers 85% of your vocabulary if you grasp a hold on it. Always prepare Synonyms and Antonyms for every word, some questions are asked on this part also.

Bonus Tips for Vocabulary- Every person has capacity of learning new words. Some find it difficult to retain a lot of words. Here are two things that you can do-

(1) Divide the words in negative or positive tone. For example- Optimistic, Sanguine, Buoyant etc. are words which denote something positive, whereas Acerbic, Scanting, Vicious, Caustic etc. are the words which give negative tone. You can just remember the tone of the word. When such word comes in a passage, you can easily determine whether it is saying something positive or negative.

(2) Try to learn root words, for example- such as ‘Bene’ means good, ‘Bio” means life, ‘Aqua” means water and ‘Mal’ means bad. Whenever any word starts with these root words, you will automatically get the meaning.

Comprehension- In many exams, we see unseen passages and paragraphs for comprehension. You have to read the passage thoroughly and understand what it says. Then the passage is followed by some questions, which you have to answer. In these questions, they can ask you to give general answers or to give the title of the passage or they can ask meaning of some words. To attempt these questions perfectly, you need to practice comprehension daily. Buy any book for practice or check on internet for daily passages. Try to attempt them in as less time as possible. Read the passage thoroughly and then move to the questions. Do not miss the central idea as it helps you to decide the title. Watch English Movies for better understanding of context, it also helps.

Spellings- Do not underestimate spellings in any examination. Sometimes questions are asked to correct the spelling, and the options are very confusing. To attempt such questions, you must memorize the spellings very well. Also, when you write subjective answers, you are judged by your spelling too. Bad spelling makes a bad impression upon the examiner.

Newspapers- A lot of people would have suggested you to start your preparation of English language by reading newspapers. However, I would suggest that one must know the grammar and the vocabulary first, so that when you start a newspaper, you understand it better. As a beginner, start by some light newspapers such asEconomic Times and gradually move towards The Hindu or The Indian Express.Look very carefully at the new words that you find in the newspaper, and learn how to create better sentence structure. Do not read too much in a day, read only that much which you can memorize in a day. Continue this for about 6 months, and you’ll see a drastic change in your English.

Write what you learn- When you learn a new word, or you learn a new way of sentence formation, always make short notes of that thing. Because when we write something, we memorize that thing even better. You can make some flash cards or you can write those words in a notebook. Either way, don’t forget to write them.

Shape your knowledge- Once you learn plenty of words, grammar and rules of English language, it’s time to shape your knowledge. You might be thinking, that ‘How I’ll shape my knowledge”? Well! Recognize the area which requires work and revise the portion which you know the best. For example- if you have good command over grammar, but are weak in vocabulary, give less time to grammar and focus more on vocabulary. Make a routine and identify your strengths and weaknesses. Once you know that how much have you covered and how much is left, you’ll know how to cover those left things. There are many Government e learning Websites from where you can also explore more subjects and important topics from and can start your preparation.

Hopefully this article guides you in some way!

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