Introduction

Stock market is a type of secondary market where the transactions of old and existing shares and securities are made.

About Shares

• Shares refer to the shared capital of the company.
• It represents the portion of the ownership of the shareholder in the company and also describes the right of the holder to the specified amount of the share capital of the company.

Capital of a Company

1. To be established under Company Act, every company has to prepare a detailed document, which is called MOA (Memorandum of Association). All the external affairs of the Company are regulated according to the MOA. Therefore, it is regarded as Constitution of the Company.
2. To deal with the internal issues of the company, another document is prepared called Articles of Association (AOA).
3. Under MOA apart from other information, company also declares its maximum capital and on behalf of this capital it raises more funds in Capital Market. Declared capital is known as Authorize Capital.
1. Issued Capital – It is that part of Authorized Capital for which shares are issued.
1. It is either equal to or less than authorized capital.
2. Subscribed Capital – It is that part of issued Capital which is subscribed by the public.
1. Oversubscription: Number of shares is 100 crores and demand is high. i.e., demand for the shares is more than number of shares.
2. Undersubscription – Demand of share is less than the number of shares. If the subscript is less than 90% of the total share, Company is not allowed to launch its IPO.
4. Paid-Up Capital: it is that capital which is acquired by the Company at the end of the process.
5. Dividend is the profit distributed on the basis of face value of the company.

Types of Shares

• Public Issue or Equity Share
• Issued for all.
• Preference Share
• The holders of such shares get the dividend first.
• Bonus Share
• When dividend is given in the form of shares instead of cash.
• Sweat Equity Share
• These are specific type of shares issued only for the employees of the company on behalf of their Extra-Ordinary achievements on behalf of Company.
• Blue – Chip Shares
• Those companies that have strong fundamentals and business models as well as profit making are known as blue-chip companies and their shares blue chip shares.
• Alpha – Shares
• Largely transacted shares are called Alpha Shares.
• Right Issue
• It is issued only for old and existing shareholders.
• It is one of the ways to raise funds.

Indian Stock Exchanges

At national level there are 4 important stock exchanges

1. Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE)
• It was established in 1875
• At present 7,300 companies are listed with it.
2. National Stock Exchange (NSE)
• It was established in 1992, on the recommendation of Pherwani Committee.
• At present 2,300 Companies are listed with it.
3. Over the Counter Stock Exchange of India (OTCEI)
• It is the Stock Exchange of Small Companies which are not established on the pattern of NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealors Automated Quotations). NASDAQ is in USA.
4. Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX-SX)
• It has got permission to function in share and securities in 2017.

Commodity Exchange in India

Under Commodity Exchange, more than 90 primary products like – Gold, Silver, Metals, Food Grains, Pulses etc are transacted through Electronic mode of delivery.

There are 4 important Commodity Exchanges in India:

1. MCX
• It is the largest commodity exchange in the country.
• It is in Mumbai
2. NCDX
• National Commodity and Derivative Exchange
• It is in Mumbai
3. NMCE
• National Multi Commodity Exchange
• It is in Ahmedabad
4. ICEX
• Indian Commodity Exchange
• It is in Gurgaon.

Stock Exchange for Crude Oil

• NYMEX
• Brent

Regulators of Commodity Exchange

Forward Market Commission (FMC)

• It is regulator of Commodity Exchange.

Other Regulators:

• IRDA – Insurance Regulator Development Authority
• TRAI - Telecom Sector
• PFRDA – Provident Fund

Share Index

These are prepared to track the fluctuations in the prices of shares and for the purpose various types of indices are prepared, but some of them are very sensitive, like in India sensitive indices are:

1. SENSEX – belongs to BSE
2. NIFTY – belongs to NSE

SENSEX

It is based upon the value of 30 blue chip companies listed under BSE.

• It was started in 1986 with base 100
• At present its value is around 49,398.29 (19^th Jan, 2020)
• 250 to 3 Lakh crore transactions per day.

NIFTY

• There are 50 companies listed in NIFTY

Important Miscellaneous

1. SEBI
2. Bull/Bear
3. Credit Ratings
4. Depository
5. ADR/GDR
6. VCF
7. Zero Coupon Bonds
8. Merchant Banks
9. Mutual Funds

SEBI

Security and Exchange Board of India

• It is an Autonomous body, was established in 1988 but got statutory status in 1992.
• Headquarter is at Mumbai.
• Chairman – Ajay Tyagi (Jan, 2020)
• Its main function is to regulate capital market, control the activities of share brokers, stock exchanges and to protect the interests of investors.

Bull/Bear/Stag

Bull/Bear – these are share market speculators, those who think stock will go up and start purchasing stock called Bull, and the trend of market is called Bullish,the reverse is called Bearish.

Their activities are also termed as Liwali/Bikwali(in Hindi)

Credit Ratings

It’s a mechanism to evaluate the financial position and credit worthiness of an individual, company or of a country.

In India following agencies are involved:

• CRISIL
• ICRA
• CARE
• ONCRA
• CIBIL

International credit rating companies:

• S & P (Standard and Poors)
• Moody
• Fitch Rating

Depository

It is a kind of database where shares and securities are maintained in electronic format or D-mat form.

In India there are 2 depositories:

1. NSDL – National Stock Depository Limited
2. CDSL – Central Depository Securities Limited

Shares of all the listed companies are handled or stored by these two.

ADR/GDR

• ADR – American Depository Receipt
• GDR – Global Depository Receipt

ADR are issued by American Depositories to allow any foreign company to function in American Capital market.

GDR is used for the same purpose by the countries other than America.

VCF – Venture Capital Fund

It is a kind of specific fund which is available for those entrepreneurs, those who have much experience, ideas and capacity to earn profit but lack of capital.

Merchant Banks

These are Capital market intermediaries and arrange funds for other companies, also functions like under-writers. (If shares not purchased by Public, these companies will buy it).

Mutual Funds

These are professionally-managed trust that pools the savings of many investors and invests them in securities like stocks, bonds, short-term money market instruments and commodities.

It is the most suitable investment for the cautious investor as it offers an opportunity to invest in a diversified professionally managed basket of securities at a relatively low cost.

Mutual fund industry in India started in 1963 with the formation of Unit Trust of India, at the initiative of Government of India and Reserve Bank of India.

In 1987, the entry of non-UTI public sector mutual funds was set up by public sector banks.

SBI Mutual Fund was the first non-UTI mutual fund.

Net Asset Value: It is the amount which a unit holder would receive if the mutual fund is wound up. It is the value of all assets less liabilities.

New Fund Offer (NFO)

Net Asset Value (NAV)

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Introduction

The first discovery of rock paintings in 1867-68 by archaeologist Archibold Carlleyle.

The most common sites of pre-historic times are:

• caves of Madhay Pardesh,
• Uttar Pardesh
• Andhra Pradesh
• Karnataka
• Bihar
• Kumaon Hills
• Lakhudiyar in Uttarakhand(rock shelters on banks of River Suyal).

The Paintingsfrom this times are divided into three categories:

• Man
• Animals
• Geometric pattern in white, black and red ochre (found in Kupgallu, Pikhlihal, Tekkalkota).

Upper Palaeolithic Period

Bhimbetka vindhya hills, Madhya Pardesh is richest in paintings.

It was first discovered by V.S. Wakankar.

The theme of paintings has great variety includes hunting, dancing, sacred and roual images, animl fighting and other household scenes.

The rock art at Bhimbetka is divided into three periods:

• Upper Paleolithic,
• Mesolithic and
• Calcolithic.

Linear representations of animals and humans in green and red are found in the caves.

Mesolithic Period

Hunting scenes dominate the paintings.

These people loved to paint animals like elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer etc.

Animals are depicted in naturalistic style while humans are depicted in stylist manner.

Chalcolithic Period

• The paintings reveal association, contact and mutual exchange of requirements. Pottery and metal tools are also shown. Different colors are used.
• Hence, prehistoric paintings help us to understand about early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their daily activities and above all their mind.
  
  
• Prehistoric period remains are a great witness to the evolution of human civilization, through numerous rock weapons, tools, ceramic and bones. Hence, rock paintings are the greatest wealth the primitive human beings of this period lift behind.

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The Population of a State is divided into 2 classes – Citizensand Aliens.

Citizens enjoy full civil and political rights; aliens do not enjoy all of them.

Citizens are the member of the political community to which they belong. They are the people who composed the State.

Aliens are further classified as friendly alien or enemy alien.

Alien enemy includes not only subjects of a State at war with India but also Indian citizens who voluntarily reside in or trade with such a State.

According to Article11, Parliament is empowered to regulate citizenship by making a law.

Subsequently, Parliament enacted citizenship act, 1955, this act was amended a number of times in – 1986, 2003, 2005 etc.

Citizenship Amendment Act 1955

According to citizenship amendment act, 1955 and subsequent amendments, Indian citizenship can be acquired on any of the following 5 grounds:

1.By Birth –

A person born in the territory of India can be considered as Indian Citizen, only if at the time of its birth, either of the parent is a citizen of India.

2.By Descent –

A person born outside the territory of India, can be given Indian citizenship only if at the time of his birth, either of the parent is a citizen of India (Hereditary Citizenship).

3.By Registration –

Under these following categories of persons can apply for Indian Citizenship:

Minor children of Indian citizen born outside India and got citizenship of that country.

A female belonging to foreign country and married to Indian man can apply for Indian citizenship after 7 years of residency in India. (Earlier it was 6 months).

By citizenship amendment Act, 1986, it was extended to male also belong to the foreign country and married to Indian female. Presently the condition is after 7 years of residency in India he can apply for Indian Citizenship.

4.By Naturalization –

Any foreigner can apply for Indian Citizenship without marrying Indian citizen, if foregoing conditions are to be fulfilled:

He must belong to the country, where similar provisions given for Indian citizen.

He can apply for certificate of naturalization only after 12 years and valid residency in India. (For commonwealth countries citizen it is still 5 years)

He must have good moral character.

Working knowledge of Indian language s essential.

5.By Incorporation of Territory –

If any foreign territory is acquired by India, the citizens belong to that category automatically becomes citizens of India – Goa, Sikkim.

A person may lose its Indian Citizenship on any of the following grounds:

a)Renunciation – If any citizen acquires citizenship of any foreign country, he is required to surrender Indian Citizenship in fact, renunciation means voluntary surrender by doing this its Indian Citizenship is lost.

b) Termination – It is a legal act. After getting citizenship of any other country, if Indian citizen doesn’t surrender Indian citizenship then its Indian citizenship is terminated by legal action of government.

c) Deprivation – If any person gets Indian citizenship by fraudulent means or by misrepresentation of facts, then he is deprived of Indian citizenship and man be deported to its own country or legal action can be taken against it.

Citizens vs Aliens Rights

Citizens of India have the following rights, which aliens do not have:

Some of the Fundamental Rights belong to citizens alone, such as – Articles 15, 16, 19.

Only citizens can have the following offices:

The President

Vice-President

Judge of the Supreme Court or of a High Court

Attorney-General

Governor of a State

Advocate General

The right of suffrage for election to the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) are also confined to citizens.

Enemy aliens suffers from a special disability; they are not entitled to the benefit of the procedural provisions in Clause (1) – (2) of Article 22, related to arrest and detention.

Citizenship Amendment Act 1986

To make Indian citizenship difficult for illegal migrants from neighboring countries, Indian citizenship Act was amended in 1986, following are the important provisions:

a) The person born in territory of India on or after 26 January 1950 and before commencement of this act in 1986, or a person born in the territory of India on or after commencement of this act in 1986, shall be considered as Indian citizen only if at the time of his birth either of a parent is a citizen of India.

b) A female married to Indian male can applied for Indian citizenship under registration only after 5 years of residency in India earlier it was 6 months.

c) This act also extended Indian citizenship to any male belong to foreign country married to Indian citizen and wants Indian citizenship can get it after 5 years of residency in India.

This act increases the time period for a foreigner belong to non-commonwealth country who applied for citizenship under naturalization only after 10 years of residency in India (earlier it was 5 years) for commonwealth and non-commonwealth countries in India.

Citizenship Amendment Act 2003

This act provides for-

a) Dual Citizenship

b) Compulsory registration for Indian citizen. According to this act the persons of Indian origin residing in 16 countries and acquired citizenship of those countries can apply for additional Indian Citizenship (Dual Citizenship) these countries are – Australia, Canada, Finland, France, Italy, New Zealand, Netherland, Portugal, Cyprus, USA, UK, Greece, Ireland, Sweden, Switzerland, Israel.

Dual citizenship has 3 limitations:

a) There shall be no right to vote.

b) They can’t hold any constitutional positions in India.

c) This act provides for a National Identity Card for these dual citizens.

Notes making is an important task while preparing for the competitive exam. Indian Polity is one of the significant subjects of the IAS Exam from both prelims and mains Exams. The topics under Polity range from –Constitution, individual’s rights, duties and responsibilities, citizenship of India, power, functions and responsibilities of various institutions of administration.

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The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (2600-1900 BCE) extending from what today is North-east Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-west India. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, that once coursed through North-west India and Eastern Pakistan.

The Early Harappan Period

The characteristics of the early Harappan period are:

• The diverse agriculture communities would have been living in and around the Indus region i.e. Baluchistan, Sindh, Punjab and Rajasthan.
• These small agricultural settlements emerged into distinct regional traditions.
• The use of similar kinds potteries, representations of a horned deity and finds of terracotta mother goddesses show the way to the emergence of a unifying tradition.
• Trading relations of Baluch people with the towns of Persian Gulf and Central Asia took place during this time.
• Technological advancements i.e. use of copper, bronze and stone tools led to greater exploitation of fertile plains that resulted in increased grain production. This created possibility for greater surpluses and thus development of trade relations with other countries.
• The larger surpluses would have permitted the elaboration of non-farming specialization.
• This is how emergence of priests, potters and craftsmen would have happened.
• Few early Harappan sites in Indus region are:
• Amri -> Stone and mud brick houses; Granaries; fortification
• Kot-Diji -> decorative pottery; fortification
• Mehrgarh -> prosperous town; use of lapis-lazuli; seals;
• Kalibangan -> mud bricks houses; pottery in different shapes; ploughed field surface.

Emergence of the Harappan Civilization

Some of the reasons that may have led to the emergence of the Harappan civilization are:

·The Existence of many agricultural groups and pastoral nomadic communities were living in close contact with each other.

·This must have led to conflict among them.

·The agricultural communities would have fought with each other for the control of more fertile tracts of land which is the possible reason for defensive walls.

·This led to emergence of Mature Harappan period.

Features of Harappan Civilization

The Harappan society was characterized by the presence of

·specialized craftsmen,

·long distance trade,

·the existence of rich and poor people and

·the presence of kings.

The Harappan communities staying in Rajasthan, Punjab or Sindh may have been using the same sets of weights and measures.

The copper-bronze tools used by them were also uniform in design, shape and size, the bricks they used had a proportion 4:2:1.

The towns were characterized by uniformities in the planning of the buildings, citadels etc.

The seals, shell(shankh) bangles, carnelian beads and the disc beads of steatite were also uniformly designed in the entire geographical space covered by the cities of the Harappan Civilization.

Most of the time a Harappan site is identified by the use of a pinkish pottery with bright red slip. This pottery had standard representations of trees, animals, birds and geometric motifs in black.

It is the oldest civilization of India and also known as the first Urbanization.

After independence it was called "Harappan Civilization”. As Harappa was the first largest city excavated.

Important Centers

During the civilization there were around 1000 cities.

Harappa

• It was the first site to be excavated.
• Substantial section of population was engaged in activities related to administration, trade, craft work or religion.
• It was located in the midst of some important trade routes of the world.

Mohenjodaro

• It is the largest site of Harappan Civilization. It is also called "Mound of the Dead”.
• It is one of the world’s earliest major urban settlements.

Kalibangan

• It has the largest concentration of the Harappan Civilization.

Lothal

• It is located in the coastal flats if the Gulf of Cambay.
• It is called as the dockyard of the Harappan times.

Dholavira

• Located in the Rann of Kannch is most recently excavated place.

Ancient History adds at least 4 – 5 questions in the UPSC Prelims. UPSC has been focussing on Art & Culture which is a part of Ancient History’s syllabus. Many aspirants ignore Ancient History. History is a continuous flow of events. In order to better understand Modern History, we need to have clarity about Ancient History also.

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Gupta Age Art and Architecture

Introduction

The emergence of Gupta Empire is called as the Golden Age of Indian Architecture.

The temple architecture, Buddhist architecture and cave traditions reached its climax.

Caves tradition in Western India

1. Mainly there are three types of Indian art and Architecture that were executed while building caves in Western India:

·Apsidal vault-roof Chaitya halls examples Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja

·Apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall, examples, Thana-Nadsur

·Flat-roof quadrangular hall with circular chamber, example, Kondivite.

2. The front of Chaitya is dominated by motif of a semi-circular Chaitya arch and a Stupa at the back is also common.

3. At Karla, biggest rock-cut Chaitya was excavated.

·Chaitya hall pillars are decorated with human and animal figures.

·Viharas included hall, cell and veranda. They are found atAjanta & Nashik. The interior decorative motifs like that in Chaitya and vihara are found over cell doors of cave. The front pillars are carved with ghata-base and ahata-capital with the human figures.

4. One Vihara at Junnar is called Ganeshleni as one image of Ganesha is instilled here.

5.Most important sites are: Ajanta, Ellora, Nashik, Junnar Karla, Kanheri, Junagarh and Bhaja.

Ajanta Caves

·It is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.

·There are 29 caves, 25 viharas and 4 chaityas. There are 1-2 storey caves.

·The large chaityas-viharas are decorated with sculptures and paintings (from 1^st-5^th CE). They were primarily built during Gupta period.

·The biggest Buddha image of Mahaparinibbana is found in 26^th cave.

·Pillared virandha and halls and cells, and the back wall is considered as the Buddha Shrine.

·Bhoomiparshmudra: Buddha showing right hand indicating to earth -> it is the largest sculpture panel in Ajanta.

·Multi coloured paintings depicting Jatakas and Avadanas.

·Frescos are also found of rice husk, limestone and natural colours.

·For example, preaching Buddha, flying apsaras, a bodhisttva holding lotus.

·Both Hinayana and Mahayana art are found.

Ellora Caves

·These caves are located in Aurangabad.

·These were built during the rule of Rashtrakutas.

·There are 34 caves which include the Buddhist, Brahaminical and Jain caves. It mostly includes Mahayana art only.

·Caves are usually 3-storey caves.

·Under Shaivite theme, Ravana shaking the Mt. Kailash; Andhakasurvada; Kalyanasundra.

·Under Vaishnavite theme, avatars of Vishnu are depicted.

·These are unique in stylistic eclecticism i.e. confluence of many styles at one place.

·Rock-cut temples are also carved. For example: Kailashnath temple.

Elephanta Caves

·These are located in Mumbai.

·It was originally a Buddhist site but later dominated by Shaivite Sect. The sculptures show stark light and dark effects.

·Some examples are: Maheshmurti (3 headed deity), Bhairava and Uma.

Eastern India Caves

·Coastal region of Andhra (Guntapelle) and in Odisha have structured monasteries.

·Anakapalli Cave has the biggest rock-cut stupa.

·Udaygiri and Khanadigri Caves of Odhisa has mostly Jainist caves.

Udayagiri caves

·These are located in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.

·These were created under the patronage of Chandragupta II.

·The caves have one of the earliest Hindu sculptures.

·Some caves are dedicated to Shiva.

Other Caves

Bagh Caves

·These are located in Madhya Pradesh.

·There are 9 Buddhist caves developed around 6^thCentury A.D.

Junagadh Caves

·These caves are located in Gujarat.

·These are Buddhist caves.

·A 30-50 ft high citadel known as Upar Kot is found in front of the prayer hall.

Nasik Caves

·These are located in Maharashtra.

·It is a group of 24 Buddhist Caves.

·Thses are also called as Pandav Leni.

·It has influence of both the Hinayana sect and the Mahayana sect.

Stupas

Dhamek stupa at Sarnath near Varanasi is an example of Stupa developed during this period.

History is considered as one of the UPSC optional subjects in competitive exam. The syllabus of History includes archaeology, historical architecture, art and cultural heritage. Specified under the syllabus of General Studies I for UPSC Civil Services Mains, Indian Art and Culture is taken as one of the important topics in the Civil Services preparation. As this is a very wide topic, you should you stick to the syllabus and study only the relevant portions.

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INTRODUCTION

Biology is the most important of all core science subjects.

Morphology means the study of forms and features of different parts of plants like leaves, roots, flower etc.

In this article we will learn about

·Roots

·Stem

·Flower

·Fruits

Bryophyta

·This group of plant lacks xylem and phloem.

·They also lack roots, stem and leaves. Thus, water transportation takes place through parenchyma.

Petridophyta

·This group of plants is found in wet places like forests and mountains.

·Plants have stem, roots and leaves.

·Examples: Ferns, Mosses

Phanerogamous Plant

·Plants of this group are well developed.

·They have roots, stem and leaves.

·Xylem and phloem are also well developed.

·It is further divided into two types:

Gymnosperm

·Trees and bushes form this group.

·Plants are woody, perennial and tall.

·The plant has naked seeds.

Angiosperm

·Roots, leaves, flowers and fruits are fully developed.

·The seeds are found inside the fruits.

·For example: Wheat, Lemon and potato etc.

Root System in Plants

·The absorption of water occurs through roots by diffusion, osmosis and other processes.

·The root develops from radicle.

·Root Hair: Water is absorbed from the soil by the root hair. The hair system of the roots is unicellular outgrowth of roots.

·The process by which these root hairs (hydrophilic substance) absorb water is called as imbibition.

·It helps in absorbing nutrients, water and moisture from the soil.

Two types of roots are:

1. Tap Root

·The main root with minor side roots grow deep into the soil is called taproot.

·It arises from the radicle of the plants.

·It occurs in dicots plants.

·For example: in Trees, shrubs and plants. Carrot, Reddish etc.

2. Adventitious Root

·The fine, thick hair like structure of root that spread sideways in all the direction is called adventitious root.

·It is also called fibrous root.

·It grows from the stem and leaves and not from the radicle.

·It occurs in monocots.

·For example: in Grasses, Onion etc.

Flower

Flower is the reproductive part of the plant.

The following are the parts of flower:

·Androecium

·Gynoecium

·Calyx

·Corolla

Two types of reproduction take place through flowers:

·Asexual Reproduction: Plant gives rise to new plant without seeds.

·Sexual Reproduction: Seeds give rise to new plants.

Stamens are the male reproductive part of the plant.

Pistil is the female reproductive part of the plant.

There are two types of flowers based on presence of stamen and pistil:

·Unisexual Flowers: Flowers which contain either only stamens or only pistil. For example, corn and papaya.

·Bisexual Flowers: Flowers which contain both stamen and pistil. For example, mustard, rose and others.

Fertililsation

·Male gametes: Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gamete.

·Female gamete: Ovary contains one or more ovules. Female gamete is formed in an ovule.

·The fusion of male gamete and the female gamete is called fertilisation.

·Fertilised egg is called zygote. Zygote develops into embryo.

Pollination

·The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called pollination.

·Self-pollination: If the pollen lands on the stigma of the flower or another flower of the same plant.

·Cross-pollination: When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of flower of different plant of same kind.

Fruit and Seed Formation

After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall off.

The fruit is the ripened ovary. Fruit implies the edible part of the plant.

Four types of fruits on the arrangement are:

·Simple fruit: It develops from single ovary of a single flower and may be fleshy or dry. For example, tomato, banana.

·Aggregate fruit: It consists of a mass of small drupes each of which develop from separate ovary of a single flower. For example: raspberry and strawberry.

·Composite fruit: It develops from the ovaries of many flowers growing in a cluster. For example, Jackfruit and Pineapple.

·Accessory fruit: It contains tissue derived from plant parts other than the ovary. For example, Apple and pear.

The seed develops from the ovules.

The seed contains an embryo which is enclosed in a protective seed coat. Seed coat is the outer part of the seed. For example, mango seed has white colour seed coat, if you break it up, you will find seeds inside it.

Question?

Is Almond a fruit of seed?

Seed dispersal

·Seed dispersal is aided by wind, water and animals.

·Seed dispersal help the plants to:

1.Prevent overcrowding

2.Avoid competition for sunlight, water and minerals.

3.Invade new habitats.

Stem

·Stem is the growing part of the plant. It is erect, strong and grows away from the soil and towards the light.

·Leaves and branches arise from nodes.

·Stems are divided into different regions between the nodes.

·Apical bud: It is the growing apex of the stem is covered by numerous, tiny, developing leaves.

Functions of Stem:

·To support and hold leaves flowers and fruits.

·It conducts the water and minerals from roots to leaves and fruits.

·It also helps in storing food.

·It also helps in process of Photosynthesis.

Three types of Stem:

Underground Stem:

·Stems remain in the ground.

·They produce aerial shoots annually.

·Some of the forms are:

·Tuber – ex. Potato

·Corm – ex. Saffron

·Bulb – ex. Onion

·Rhizome -- Ginger

Aerial Stem:

·Some of the forms are:

·Stem tendril – ex. Passiflora

·Pylloclade – ex. Duranta

Sub-aerial Stem:

·Some of the forms are:

·Runner – ex. Doob grass

·Stolon – ex. Jasmine

Leaf

·It is green outgrowth from the stem.

·It is the primary sites for photosynthesis i.e. prepare food for the plant.

·Leaves are initiated in the apical bud (growing tip of a stem).

·Leaf of Aloe vera has liquid inside them.

·Leaves of cactus are modified into spines.

General science is a subject that is equally important as other subjects for the UPSC civil services exam. Generally, students from science or engineering backgrounds find this section easy, but candidates came from others background find this section a little tough. So the preparation strategies should be according to that to perform well in the competitive exams.

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INTRODUCTION

English is a subject of language. And like any other language, there are basic rules of grammar that needs to be followed while learning any language.

To learn English, the three basic requirements are:

Know the Basic Rules of the English Grammar

Learn as much vocabulary as possible.

Practice, practice and practice.

English language plays a very determining part in any government exam. If you’re aspiring for any such examination, you need to have a good command over English language.

In this course, we are going to build your concepts for a strong hold on English. And apart from that, we will provide a lot of questions for thorough practice.

Phrase

It is a group of words that have meaning. Or it is a group of related words.

Example: in the corner;

On the roof;

In the room

To eat dinner

Clause

A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and verb.

Independent clause – it is a complete sentence; can stand alone by itself.

Dependent (subordinate) clause– it expresses only a part of thought; it cannot stand alone as a sentence. It is a group of words that forms a part of a sentence and has a subject and a finite verb of its own.

How to find the type of Clause?

Clause can form a part of sentence or it could be a complete sentence in itself.

Example: Sita had a long career but she is remembered mainly for her early work.

The above sentence has 2 clauses.

Clause 1: Sita had a long career.

Clause 2: But she is remembered mainly for her early work.

Every sentence contains at least one main clause.

Main Clause: A main clause then may form a part of Complex or Compound sentences. But it also makes sense on its own.

Example: Varun was eating a hot dog.

Subordinate Clause: A subordinate clause depends on a main clause for its meaning.

**Together with main clause, a subordinate clause forms a part of a Complex sentence. **

Sentence

A sentence is an independent clause that may or may not be combined with other clauses to convey a complete and sometimes complex thought. Or it is a group of words that has a definite meaning and contains a Subject and Finite verb.

Example: He is in the corner;

She is on the roof;

Father was in the room

Structure of Sentences

Simple Sentence

Compound Sentence: Two or more main clause connected using Coordinate Conjunctions.

Complex Sentence: Principal Clause is connected with one or more subordinate clause using subordinate conjunction.

How to find the ‘Subject’?

Verb + who? Will answer the Subject

How to find the ‘Object’?

Verb + What? Or Whom? Will answer the Object.

Generally, an Indirect object comes before a Direct object.

If a direct object comes before indirect object, then it is mandatory to put – ‘to’, ‘of’ or ‘for’ before Indirect object.

Types of Sentences

1.Assertive

Affirmative

Subject + Verb + Object

Subject + Helping Verb + Main Verb + Object

Negative

Subject + Helping Verb + Not + Main Verb + Object

2.Interrogative

Yes/No

Helping Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object?

Not before Main Verb in Negative sentences.

Example: Do you know his name?

Descriptive

Wh + Helping Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Object?

Wh – Wh family words.

Not before main verb

Example: Why do you not play well?

Imperative

Starts with First form of Verb – Come here

Starts with Let – Let me go

Starts with Don’t – Don’t talk in the class

Exclamatory

!

We won the match!

Optative

Starts with ‘May’ – Bless or Curse

May god bless you!

Tips:

The subject of a sentence will Never be in a prepositional phrase.

There is a Subject and Verb on both sides of the Conjunctionand Semicolon.

Direct Object: non-living

Indirect Object: Living

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It is known universally that modern age is the age of stress, tension and anxiety and young generation are the falling prey to depression.

Nowadays most of the students are not leading happy and productive life as they indulge in materialism that simply aggravates the already existing problems in their lives.

As a student you have exams to prepare, thinking about job, financial stress, family responsibilities and a demanding social atmosphere, as a result you sink into undesirable academic and personal problems making you feel lost. This feeling of loneliness creates an imbalance in your life therefore, you do not get peace anywhere and feel upset for not being able to perform even simple task.

Types of Stress

Stress can be either short term or long term. Short term stress can direct us to raise our score, polish our skills better than others and even encourage us to pursue coveted opportunities. It motivates us to break the barriers and do better than others.

However, prolonged stress i.e. Long term stressbecomes troublesome if it starts digging your mind and goes unchecked. This stress can make a student lose his self-confidence and further push him into a dark phase.

At this junction stress relieving activity is significant for someone going through academic stress. You can get rid of stress- related problems by practicing yoga and taking mindful pause which is like rest button.

Yoga from ages has been known to be great antidote to stress – relief and adding confidence. Many students find that yoga helps them in controlling emotional imbalance, stress and builds ability to cop up with the frustrating situations.

Benefits of Yoga

Yoga is more than just stretching, physical postures or closing eyes. It is a unique workout for body and intellectual mind. Yoga can be helpful in both memorizing and learning g capacity by counteracting stress and promoting willpower.

1. Reduce mental tension – Yoga can help in reducing tension. It is well- known fact that most of the students remains under stress and tension. Medication practices like Pratyahar, Dharana and Dhyan plays a vital role for restoring peace of mind. Makarasana, Shavasana, Suptasana and Bhujangasana Are beneficial for releasing stress. It helps in improving your memory and decline in dementia.
2. Healthy body – "health is wealth” everyone in this universe wants to have a healthy body. By doing yogic asanas you will get rid of many health problems and stay fit. It will boost your metabolism, digestion and contribute to fat burning.
3. Improves sleep quality – Poor sleep pattern gives birth to various diseases and disorders. Students perform multiple activities in their day to day life and due to this workload sleep can be affected. Therefore, by adopting yoga you will have better sleep pattern.
4. Increases flexibility – flexibility is important for every person. It makes the body movement affective and graceful. Regular yoga practice can keep the lower back pain at bay and you can devote increased number of hours for studies without any worry. Yagasanas like Chakrasana, Dhanurasana, Halasana, Bhujangasana and Shalabhasana are beneficial in increasing flexibility of muscles.
5. Provides relaxation – Rest and relaxation is important to remove fatigue. Students are indulged in physical & mental work throughout the day. Hence, they need rest by doing Shavasana, Makarasana they can relax themselves. Padmasana and Nadam Sadhana are good for reducing mental fatigue.
6. Spiritual development – Through yoga we can attain spiritual development. By doing regular yogic exercise we can have good control over our mind. Padmasana, Pranayama and Siddhasana are best suited for this as they enhance meditation power and peace in life.
7. Eradicates obesity – Obesity is a worldwide problem. Obese people fall prey to various diseases. Yogic exercises like Pranayama and meditative asanas reduce obesity. These asanas can reduce mental tension which causes obesity.
8. Improves health – Yoga helps in maintaining and improving health by making our muscles strong, reenergizing and regulating other system of the body such as respiration, excretory, circulatory, nervous and glandular systems. It increases the efficiency of the body and thus improves health.
9. Enhancing ethical values – by practicing Yama and Niyama such as non- violence, truthfulness, non- stealing, Swadhyaya , Santosh makes an individual strong more morally and ethically.
10. Yoga can be easily performed –In present day life; everybody seems to be in a hurry. Lives become fast. Every individual complains of shortage time. All the yogic exercise can be performed easily. These exercises can be done in a short duration and are not expensive. Moreover, these exercises can be performed in less space.

How to Include Yoga in Your Routine?

The best part about Yoga is that you do not have to make any preparations in advance.

Either in the morning or in the evening you can reap the benefits of the Yoga. Interestingly, if you are feeling tired between your studies, and then also you can give yourself yoga break of 5-10 mins and revitalize your body.

However, if you are a beginner and have resolved to incorporate Yoga in daily life then you need to read below:

• Before starting Yoga postures, it is recommended to do some stretching first. This warms up the body.
• Initially, you need to perform Yoga for 30-45 minutes to see its results.
• Start with easy postures first, like Suryanamaskar and then gradually include the difficult postures.
• A certified trainer is duly recommended.
• The most crucial aspect of yoga is continuity so; you need to be consistent enough to follow routine.
• Adding yoga to your morning routine can be beneficial as when you return back you might not feel like exercising.
• It is very easy to learn and you do not need to spend money on buying expensive membership of gym to maintain fitness.

Yoga will help to improve your strength, concentration and flexibility.

Simply adding a few poses to your normal warm up or cool down can gives your mind and body the recovery it needs.

Also, fix a time which is suitable for you and time you can stick with, so that exercise become habit.

IMPORTANT TIPS

1. Dress comfortably
2. Eat light before yoga
3. Hydrate your body
4. Try to relax
5. Be regular to maximize return
6. Smile to take you through miles
7. Push your boundaries
8. Don’t compare yourself with others
9. Visualize
10. Practice

In a nutshell, it can be concluded that is a significant for mankind especially in present- day life. An individual can attain perfect health and can lead a happy, contented, exhilarated and productive life, if he performs yogic exerciseregularly.

Now a day’s preparation with different subjectsholds a major weightage in any exam. It has such a limitless syllabus that even when you study it daily, you would not be able to complete it thoroughly. Unoreads is the best Online Learning Platforms for Students to provide different topics like on current affairs, polity, economics, Science, English, Health, History along with general knowledge is an integral part of any government or competitive exams.

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About the CULEE 2021

Christ University Law Entrance Exam, commonly known as CULEE is conducted to get entrance into the Christ (Deemed to be University) The School of Law.

The BA, LL.B (Honours) at The School of Law, is specially designed with a multi-disciplinary approach to cater to the legal industries’ requirement of litigation, judiciary, academia, policy engagement et cetera.

The School of Law, CHRIST (Deemed to be University) is granted approval by Bar Council of India.

Eligibility for CULEE 2021

·The age for applying for the CULEE 2021 is 20 years as on 1 July 2021.

·Eligibility for the programme is a pass at the +2 level (Karnataka PUC / ISC / CBSE / NIOS / State Boards) in any stream with minimum of 45% (Humanities, Social Sciences, Commerce & Management, and Sciences) from any recognised Board in India.

·Candidates writing the +2 examinations in March-May 2021 may apply with their class X and XI marks.

Students pursuing International curriculum must note that eligibility is according to AIU stipulations:

·Applicants pursuing IB curriculum must have 3 HL and 3 SL with 24 credits.

·Applicants pursuing GCE / Edexcel must have a minimum of 3 A levels with a grade not less than C.

Application Process for CULEE 2021

·Commencement of Application Process: 8 December 2020

·Last Day to Apply: One week before the Scheduled Entrance Exam (Tentative date: 31st May )

·Registration will be Online: https://appstat.christuniversity.in

·Documents Required for application process:

·Copy of Mark Sheet of Class 10, Class 11/12

·Passport Size photography (3.5 cm x 4.5 cms) in formal dress with white background. Scan and upload and submit the form.

·Payment of application fee of INR 5000.

·Application Number will be generated and then print your application form.

·If application number is not generated then, refund of the application fee would be started.

·The candidates need to carry the application printout, original documents and a set of photocopies to the selection process on the allotted date, time and venue mentioned on the selection process admit card.

·Original marks cards and ID proof will be verified during the selection process.

Exam Pattern CULEE 2021

The CULEE Exam will be conduct on the following pattern:

Subjects- No. of Questions

English-30

Reasoning-25

General Knowledge-30

Current Affairs-15

Data Analysis & Interpretation-20

Total Marks-120

Negative Marking: There will be negative marking of 0.25

Micro Presentation and Personal Interview

After clearing the CULEE 2021 Entrance Exam, the selected candidates will be called for Micro presentation.

Format of MP: Candidate should be able to talk for 90 seconds on a topic given by the panel.

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INTRODUCTION

Plants take water and minerals from the soil through the roots and transport it to the leaves. The leaves prepare food for the plant, using water and carbon-dioxide during photosynthesis.

This process of photosynthesis prepares food for the plant which is necessary for energy to the cells. The cells use this energy to carry out vital activities of life. Therefore, food must be made available to each and every cell.

Thus, a proper system of transportation is required for the transportation of food, water and minerals. This system of transportation includes:

• Roots
• Leaves
• Xylem
• Phloem

Transport of Water and Minerals

Function of Roots

• Plants absorb water and minerals by the roots.
• The roots have root hair.
• The root hair is in the contact with the water present between the soil particles.
• The root hair increases the surface area of the root for absorption of water and mineral dissolved in the water or soil.

Vascular Tissue

• Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil.
• The vessels are made of special cells, forming vascular tissue.
• The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is called xylem.
• The xylem forms a continuous network of channels that connect roots to the leaves through the stem and branches and thus transport water to the entire plant.
• Leave synthesis the food which has to be transported to all the parts of the plant. This is done by phloem.

Transport of water

• In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of the roots stem and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all the parts of the plant.
• At roots, cells in contact of soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference in the concentration of these ions between the root and soil. Water, therefore, moves into the root from the soil to eliminate the difference.
• This means there is steady movement of water into root xylem, creating a column of water that is steadily pushed upwards.
• However, this pressure by itself is unlikely to be enough to move water over the heights that we commonly see in plants. Plants use another strategy to move water in the xylem upwards to the highest points of the plant body.

Transpiration and its Benefits

• When the plant has an adequate supply of water, the water which is lost through the stomata is replaced by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
• That is, evaporation of water molecule from the cells of a leaf creates a suction which pulls water from the xylem cells of roots.
• The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as transpiration.
• Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
• It also helps in transport of water is more important at night. During the day when the stomata are open, the transpiration pull becomes the major driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.

Transport of Food & other Substances

• The method of transportation of products of metabolic processes, particularly photosynthesis, from leaves, where they are formed, to other parts of the plant is called translocation.
• It occurs in phloem of vascular bundle.
• Besides, the phloem transports amino acids and other substances. These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
• The translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions.
• The transportation in phloem requires energy.
• Materials like sucrose are transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to tissues which have less pressure. This allows the phloem to move material according to the plant’s needs.
• For example, sugar in root or stem tissue would be transported to the buds which need energy to grow.

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English language plays a very determining part in any government exam. If you’re aspiring for any such examination, you need to have a good command over English language.

There are some competitive examinations, where questions are provided in Hindi or Regional languages also, but the fact remains, that there is a separate section in every exam where your knowledge of English is tested. This section carries no option for any other language, so you are kind of stuck in it.

To ease this difficulty, you need to lay down special emphasis over your language preparation so that you don’t lose marks due to lack of knowledge of English. Now, if you’re someone who is not too good at English or is average in studies, you need not to worry. Just follow some tips and keep up the hard work, soon you’ll have the knowledge that you seek. So, let’s get started!

Grammar- Grammar is the main essence of any language and to know a language you must have command over grammar part. The day you realize that you need to prepare for English, the first step you should be doing is, to ace its grammar. To understand the question or to answer the question, you need to know about how sentences are formed and what they mean. Do not directly go for heavy-heavy books of grammar, start with basic school books. Start with learning Part of Speech, Tenses, Narration and Voice. At first learn the rules then try to apply them in practical life. Once you start getting familiar with the rules, focus on things like Modals, Prepositions, Adjectives, Gerund, and Infinitive etc. In a few months, you’ll notice a change in your orientation. You will have knowledge of rules and their application. Then you can try some standard books of grammar such as Wren & Martin orS.P.Bakshi.

Vocabulary- Once you get an idea about the grammar, you must go for Vocabulary. Start with learning the words which you use daily, try to know the name of things that you use daily. Grab any dictionary and try to learn as many new words as you can. But remember to revise and use those words, otherwise you’ll forget them soon. A very good source of learning new words can be newspapers. I would also suggest you to listen to English Songs, Podcasts and videos; they introduce you with new meanings every day. Apart from this, you can search for specific pdfs of Vocabulary for your exam; there are plenty of those available on the internet. A very standard book for Vocabulary is "Word Power Made Easy "by Norman Lewis. This book covers 85% of your vocabulary if you grasp a hold on it. Always prepare Synonyms and Antonyms for every word, some questions are asked on this part also.

Bonus Tips for Vocabulary- Every person has capacity of learning new words. Some find it difficult to retain a lot of words. Here are two things that you can do-

(1) Divide the words in negative or positive tone. For example- Optimistic, Sanguine, Buoyant etc. are words which denote something positive, whereas Acerbic, Scanting, Vicious, Caustic etc. are the words which give negative tone. You can just remember the tone of the word. When such word comes in a passage, you can easily determine whether it is saying something positive or negative.

(2) Try to learn root words, for example- such as ‘Bene’ means good, ‘Bio” means life, ‘Aqua” means water and ‘Mal’ means bad. Whenever any word starts with these root words, you will automatically get the meaning.

Comprehension- In many exams, we see unseen passages and paragraphs for comprehension. You have to read the passage thoroughly and understand what it says. Then the passage is followed by some questions, which you have to answer. In these questions, they can ask you to give general answers or to give the title of the passage or they can ask meaning of some words. To attempt these questions perfectly, you need to practice comprehension daily. Buy any book for practice or check on internet for daily passages. Try to attempt them in as less time as possible. Read the passage thoroughly and then move to the questions. Do not miss the central idea as it helps you to decide the title. Watch English Movies for better understanding of context, it also helps.

Spellings- Do not underestimate spellings in any examination. Sometimes questions are asked to correct the spelling, and the options are very confusing. To attempt such questions, you must memorize the spellings very well. Also, when you write subjective answers, you are judged by your spelling too. Bad spelling makes a bad impression upon the examiner.

Newspapers- A lot of people would have suggested you to start your preparation of English language by reading newspapers. However, I would suggest that one must know the grammar and the vocabulary first, so that when you start a newspaper, you understand it better. As a beginner, start by some light newspapers such asEconomic Times and gradually move towards The Hindu or The Indian Express.Look very carefully at the new words that you find in the newspaper, and learn how to create better sentence structure. Do not read too much in a day, read only that much which you can memorize in a day. Continue this for about 6 months, and you’ll see a drastic change in your English.

Write what you learn- When you learn a new word, or you learn a new way of sentence formation, always make short notes of that thing. Because when we write something, we memorize that thing even better. You can make some flash cards or you can write those words in a notebook. Either way, don’t forget to write them.

Shape your knowledge- Once you learn plenty of words, grammar and rules of English language, it’s time to shape your knowledge. You might be thinking, that ‘How I’ll shape my knowledge”? Well! Recognize the area which requires work and revise the portion which you know the best. For example- if you have good command over grammar, but are weak in vocabulary, give less time to grammar and focus more on vocabulary. Make a routine and identify your strengths and weaknesses. Once you know that how much have you covered and how much is left, you’ll know how to cover those left things. There are many Government e learning Websites from where you can also explore more subjects and important topics from and can start your preparation.

Hopefully this article guides you in some way!

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Secularism is the detachment of religious affairs from the operation of political, economic and social activities in a state. This principle denotes that religion and state share no nexus with one another.

In simple words, Secularism is a principle which ensures that the political decisions of a state are not influenced by religious institutions. This principle also ensures that no religion is considered superior and all religions are given equal status. Every country exercises its own form of Secularism in a different way. In a nutshell, Secularism has two sides, one is positive and the other is negative.

Today we’ll learn about, what is Secularism in India? And how it is different from the secularism in other countries?

Indian Definition of Secularism

"We the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN…..and to secure to all its citizens…LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship……adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution.”

These are the very first words of Indian Constitution. The Preamble which is called the mirror of our constitutiondeclares India to be a Secular State, a state which respects all religions and give them their freedom of religion. India has adopted the positiveside of Secularism i.e. the state neither supports the religion nor opposes the religion; it stays neutral, when it comes to religion.

In India, every religion is treated equally, and every person is provided the freedom to Practice, Profess or Propagatehis religion.

In the case of St. Xavier’s College v. State of Gujarat, AIR 1974, the Supreme Court explained Indian Secularism as- "Secularism is neither anti god not pro god, it treats devotees, antagonist and atheist in the same manner. It removes religion from the state matters and ensures that no one is discriminated on the ground of religion.”

Therefore, India practices that form of Secularism, where the religious and political lines do not cross each other. The state favors no religion but respects every religion.

Why India is Secular?

Technically the word ‘Secularism’ was inserted in the Constitution by way of 42^nd Amendment in 1976. However, secularism was in the roots of this country way before this amendment. We often ask that why India is Secular? Well! Let’s discuss the answer in the following points-

• The Forty Second Amendment- This amendment was brought in year 1976 when it added three new words to the preamble. One of these words was "Secularism”. This step ensured a constitutional significance of the fact, that there is no state religion in India and every religion is equal in India.
• Article 14- this article enshrines that "every person shall enjoy equality before law and equal protection of laws” within India. This is the ideal principle ensuring Secularism because it provides that no one shall be treated unequally. As per this article, every religion in India is equal before law.
• Freedom of Religion-Article 25-28 of the Constitution of India provides that every citizen shall have a Right to Freedom of Religion. these articles denote the secular character of India-
• Article 25 provides ‘Freedom of Conscience’ and ‘the Right to freely practice, profess and propagate religion’. Basically, this article grants every citizen the freedom to worship his god in the manner he likes.
• Article 26 provides that every religious group has a right- to establish and maintain religious institutions, to manage its own religious affairs and to own movable and immovable property. This article ensures the economic and administrative freedom of religious groups in India.
• Article 27 provides that no one shall be compelled to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any religion. This article denotes secularism because it also makes sure that the money collected by way of tax will not be spent by the state for the promotion of any religion.
• Article 28 provides that if any educational institution is managed by state funds, no religious activity would take place in that institution. This article prohibits influence of religion over educational activities.
• Article 15- This article provides that no one shall be discriminated on the basis of religion. No restrictions or conditions shall be placed upon any person on the ground of Religion.
• Article 16- this article ensures that every citizen is provided equal opportunity in public employment irrespective of his religious or spiritual orientation.
• Directive Principles of State Policy- The part IV of the Constitution deals with the DPSPs. There are provisions ensuring religious harmony and spirit of brotherhood in this part. These principles are widely refereed to, when the legislative makes any legislation. Therefore, these principles reflect in the laws of the country.

Indian Secularism v/s Western Secularism

India follows the positive concept of Secularism, whereas the West follows the negative concept.

• In West, state and religion are completely separate and they do no interfere in the functioning of the other. However, in India state is not completely ignorant towards religion, it stays neutral for every religion and intervenes when required.
• In West, a single uniform code of law is used for all regions, but in India we have the law which is equal for everyone, but we have personal laws for religions.
• In West, a wall that separates region and state exists, but in India, both the state and religion can interact with each other by lawful means.
• In Western Countries, the state does not offer any aid or economical help to religions, however in India; state does help of religious minorities and groups for their betterment.
• Western Countries do not interfere in the religious affairs, unless they violate any law, but in India, the state can interfere in religious matters to stop them from doing any evil. For example- India has abolished- triple talaq, sati, animal sacrifice etc from religions.

Conclusion

Indian Secularism can be understood with an example of Solar System. Like every planet in solar system has its own place and they do not interfere with the sun or with other planers similarly all religions mutually exist in their sphere without any state interference. Secularism is the basic structure of Indian Constitution that cannot be altered or removed. This principle connotes the basic moral and social value that we, as Indian possess. There is no religion in India that is treated as superior to others. However like every right, this principle also has some limitations. You can wave your hand in the air freely until you injure someone’s nose. Every religion has right to exercise their freedom until and unless they interfere with the freedom of any other religion.

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Introduction

Economic system or economic order is a set up according to which societies and government organizes means of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and services to the society or a given geographical area. Indian economic system is an example of the mixed economic system.

Economic System of the world

Economic system of the world can be broadly classified into the following 3 categories:

1.Capitalistic Economic System

2.Socialistic Economic System

3.Mixed Economic System

Capitalistic Economic System

Capitalist Economic System is also known as Laissez-faire, means leave me alone. (Name given by Merchandise class).

• It is also called Marketed Economic System.
• In this system, the Means of Productions are owned by Private individuals.
• Market Forces (i.e., Demand and Supply) play vital role.
• Consumer is in powerful condition (King Like condition) in this system.
• Democracy is Stronger under this system.

Criticism

• Centralization of Capital
• Possibility of negligence of Public Welfare
• Possibility of Class – Conflict between industries and labourers as their interests are different.
• Sometimes Inflation, Unemployment and Recession like macro-Economic challenges become serious.

Socialistic Economic System

Under Socialist Economic system, Means of Production, distribution and price determination is controlled by the Government.

• This system is based upon the ideology of Social-Justice and Equality.
• Since the system is too much controlled therefore it is not much popular and is adopted by very few countries of the world. i.e., China, Cuba, North Korea, etc.

Mixed-Economic System

In Mixed-Economic system, both Public Sector and Private Sector run side by side.

• Generally Public Welfare production activity is controlled by the Government (i.e., Education, Health, etc) while the production of Consumer Goods is handed to Private Sector.

Indian Economic System

Indian economic system is divided into 2 phases –

1.1948 – 1990

2.1990 to till now

During first phase Government policies were oriented towards Socialistic views because Government was concerned about Centralisation of Capital, therefore strict rules and regulations were adopted.

The year 1990 was the year of Economic Crisis for India, that took place for the first time after Independence and it was the crisis of foreign currency (i.e., Balance of Payment (BOP) crisis)

In order to control the situation, in 1991 comprehensive economic reforms were started, which was popularly known as LPG reforms. (Liberalisation, Privatization, Globalisation) and it is still going on.

As a result the element of market become dominant in Indian Economy and Mixed Economic system has been somewhat changed and it could be better expressed as – ‘Market Oriented-Planned Mixed’ economic system.

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INTRODUCTION

Two major sites of Indus Valley Civilisation:

• Harappa in North and
• Mohenjodaro in South

These sites showcase earliest examples of civic planning, horses, market, storage facilities, and public bath. Also, statues in stone, bronze and terracotta.

Important sites in India are:

• Lothal and Dholavira ­: Gujarat
• Rakhigari : Haryana
• Ropar : Punjab
• Kalibangan and Balathal : Rajasthan
• Daimabad : Maharashtra

Unique features of Indus Valley Art

Some of the unique features of the Indus art are discussed below:

• Stone Statues
• Two male figures: A torso in red sandstone; A bearded man in steatite.
• Draped shawl decorated with trefoil patterns.
• Bronze Casting
• During Harappans
• Bronze statues made using ‘lost-wax’ technique
• The most popular is a copper statue of Dancing Girl.
• Terracota
• Though crude forms but realistic at Gujarat and Kalibangan sites. Representing mother goddess.
• Seals
• With figures of animals such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant etc.
• Seals produced mainly for commercial purposes.
• Pashupati Seal – Some identify it as female deity. The figure in center surrounded by animals.
• Pottery
• Fine wheel-made wares, plain pottery is more common than painted ones.
• Polychrome pottery with geometrical designs.
• Perforated pottery probably used for liquor.
• Beads and Ornaments
• Large variety found at Mohenjodaro & Lothal include necklaces of gold & semi-precious stones.
• At Farmana in Haryana, dead bodies buried with ornaments.
• Spinning of cotton & wool was very common.

Architecture in Indus Valley

The most striking feature of the Harappa and Mohejodaro is remarkable way of town planning.

Some of the important points to consider are:

• Rectangular Grid Pattern: The towns were laid out in rectangular grid pattern. The roads ran in North-South and East-West direction. They cut each other in right angles.
• Harappans used burnt mud bricks of standardised dimensions for the purpose of building houses, public baths and public buildings.
• The city was divided into two parts:
• Upraised Citadel: Here, large buildings like granaries, administrative buildings, pillared halls and courtyard were found.
• Lower-part of city: Here, houses of the common people or village people or working people are found.
• Advanced drainage system: Small drains from each house were connected to larger drains running alongside the main roads. Proper hygiene was maintained in both public and personal sphere.
• Most important buildings found in excavation sites are:
• Great bath: The public bath excavated in Mohenjodaro is the most famous. These baths had galleries and rooms.
• Granaries: These were made to store grains. These were made on raised platforms.
• Assembly Hall: These were made in the cities for the gathering of the people.

Sculptures of Indus Valley

The most common sculptures found during Harappan Civilization were seals, bronze figures and potteries.

Seals

• Different types of seals are found.
• Steatite, a soft stone, was the most common material used to make seals.
• Other materials were agatem chert, copper, terracotta, copper, gold and ivory.
• Pictographic script: This script is found on seals. It is written right to left on one line and left to right on next line. It is bi-directional writing style.
• Animal Impressions: Some seals have animal motifs, some of the animals were, unicorn, humped bull, bison, ibex, elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, goat etc.
• Half animal and half- animal images are also found on the seals.

Uses of Seals

• For commercial purposes.
• For using them as amulets (tabeez).
• For educational purposes.

Bronze Figures

• Bronze Casting
• The bronze stateues were made using lost wax technique or Cire Perdue.
• In this technique, wax figures are first coated with wet clay and allowed to dry. The clay coated figures are then heated, allowing the wax inside to melt. The wax is then poured out through a tiny hole and liquid metal is poured inside the hollow mould. After the metal has cooled down and solidifies, the clay coat is removed and a metal figure of the same shape as the wax figure is obtained.
• The Dancing Girl
• It is the world’s oldest bronze sculpture.
• It is a statue of naked girl wearing only ornaments that are bangles and amulet and bracelet. She stands in tribhanga dancing posture.

Terracotta

• Terracotta means the use of fire baked clay for making sculptures.
• Pinching Method was used to make these figures.
• It was used by the poor class to make toys, animal figures and miniature carts and wheels etc.
• The Mother Goddess Figure
• It is a figure of a standing female wearing a necklace and a fan-shaped headgear. It was probably worshipped.

Pottery

Two kinds of pottery are found near the excavation site: plain potter and painted pottery.

• Plain Pottery
• It was used for household purposes, mainly for storage of water and grains.
• These potteries looked inexpensive and were probably used by the lower class.
• Painted pottery
• It was also called Red and Black Pottery.
• The background is of red color and glossy black color is used to make designs.
• Animal figures, geometric patterns, trees designs were found on these potteries.
• Miniature vessels were used for decorative purposes.
• Some potteries have large holes on bottom and small holes across the sides. These are called Perforated potteries.

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INTRODUCTION

The scientific practice of identifying, naming and grouping of the living organisms is called classification. Therefore, it is nothing but categorisation of organisms in different groups.

Taxonomy is the branch of biology which deals with the classification of living organisms. Under this branch, organisms are named and described as well.

Systematics is the branch of biology which deals with grouping and arranging various organisms in hierarchical classification.

Advantages of Classification

• It helps to identify different organisms and place them under particular groups.
• It provides pattern and helps in systematic study of organisms.
• It shows relationship between different organisms.
• It helps to understand the process of evolution from the simple to complex organisms.

Read further for all the five kingdom classification and its notes.

Macro and Micro Classification

Macro Classification

• Carolus Linnaeus in 1758 divided all organisms into two kingdoms in his book Systema Nature as:
• Plantae – The Kingdom of Plants
• Animalia – The Kingdom of Animals
• Since, organisms like bacteria, virus and fungi were left out of this classification, therefore, new classification was considered.

Five Kingdom Classifications

• Five kingdom classification was proposed by R. H. Whittaker in 1969 based on three criteria:
• Cell structure of the organism
• Body Structure of the organism
• Mode of nutrition of the organism
• It is also called the Micro classification or Modern classification of the organisms.

Monera

It includes all unicellular prokaryotic organisms like bacteria and cyanobacteria

These organisms are microscopic i.e. cannot be seen with naked eyes.

The cell does not have well defined nucleus. The DNA is present in the cell without being enclosed by nuclear membrane.

They do not have cell organelles. The cell has rigid cell wall.

For example:

• Blue green algae
• bacteria

Protista

·It includes unicellular plants and animals.

·They are eukaryotic i.e. they have a well – defined nucleus with a nuclear membrane.

·The cell has cell organelles.

·These organisms are usually found in aquatic habitat.

Some examples include:

• Euglena
• Amoeba
• Paramecium

Fungi

It includes non-green plants.

·They are multicellular and eukaryotic organisms.

·These are heterotrophs i.e. they cannot make their own food.

·It has saprophytic mode of nutrition i.e. they get their food from dead and decaying matter.

·They are made of thread-like hyphae structure.

·The green or black substance found on rotten bread is fungi only.

For example:

• Mushroom
• Mucor
• Albugo
• Moulds

Plantae

It includes all the green plants except algae and organisms already belonging to Monera or Protista.

·These are multicellular and eukaryotic plants.

·They have Chlorophyll that makes the process of photosynthesis possible.

·These are autotrophs i.e. they make their own food.

For example:

• Bryophytes
• Petridophytes
• Gymnosperms
• Angiosperms

Animalia

All animals except Protozoa come under this group.

·These are multicellular animals.

·The cell structure is well developed. The DNA and RNA are present in the nucleus.

·The chlorophyll and cell wall are absent.

·These are heterotrophs i.e. the cell cannot make food on its own.

For example:

• Human
• Lion
• Whale

Bionomial Nomenclature

• The naming of an organism is called Nomenclature.
• Carolus Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy.
• A proper system to name the organisms was needed so that by the name could reflect the group it belongs to.
• Every organism is represented by a proper name.
• In binomial nomenclature, the name of an organism is composed of two words in Latin language.
• The first word is Genus and is called the Generic name. It always starts with capital letter.
• The second word refers to the name of the species and is called the Specific name. The first letter is written with small alphabet.

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In the year 2004, it was decided by the Government of India to declare Indian Languages meeting certain requirements as "Classical language” and Tamil was declared as a Classical Language by the Government of India in June 2004.

Sanskrit is already having a special status in India under Article 351 and Sanskrit was declared as a classical language in the year 2005.

Classification of Indian Languages

The Indian languagesbelong to major 6 language families:

• Indo-Aryan Group
• Dravidian Group
• Sino-Tibetian Group
• Negroid
• Austic (Mon-Khmer)
• Others

Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages are used by a large majority of India’s population. The language families divide roughly into geographic groups.

• Languages of the Indo-Aryan group are spoken mainly in Northern and Central regions.
• The languages of Southern India are mainly of the Dravidian group.
• Some ethnic groups in Assam and other parts of Eastern India speak languages of Mon-Khmer group.
• People in the Northern Himalayan region and near the Burmese border speak Sino-Tibetan languages.
• Speakers of 54 different languages of Indo-Aryan family make up about three-quarters of India’s population.
• Twenty Dravidian languages are spoken by nearly a quarter of the people.
• Speakers of 20 Mon-Khmer language and 98 Sino-Tibetan languages together make up about 2 per cent of the population.

Criteria for Classical languages in India

In the year 2006, the Government of India declared that the following are the criteria to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered and declared as classical languages:

1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years.
2. A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers.
3. The literary tradition is original and not borrowed from another speech community.
4. The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

Currently six languages enjoy the status of Classical languages in India:

• Tamil (2004)
• Sanskrit (2005)
• Kannada and Telegu (200
• Malayalam (2013)
• Odiya (2014)

What are the benefits enjoyed by the Classical languages?

Once the status of Classical language is given to the language, then the following benefits are accredited to the language:

1. Two major annual international awards for scholars of eminence in classical Indian languages.
2. A Centre of Excellence for studies in Classical Languages is set up.
3. The University Grants Commission is requested to create, to start with at least in the Central Universities, a certain number of Professional Chairs for the Classical Languages so declared.

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INTRODUCTION

·The story of Indian Literature extends back over more than 5000 years.

·It includes the religious classics of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.

·Apart from that, literature from the courts of Indian monarchs, oral poetry and song and modern verse and prose expressing contemporary ideas.

·Although each successive generation has added its own contribution to Indian literature the ancient texts are still influential. Until modern times, literature usually reached its audience through performance and recitation. Religious texts and stories, often of enormous length, were memorized and handed down orally from one generation to the next. So, although about half the population of Southern Asia are unable to read or write, the culture of the region is highly developed.

·Theliterature of the Indian subcontinent falls into three periods:

Ø The Ancient Period: primarily dominated by Sanskrit, lasting up to about A.D. 1000

Ø The Medieval Period: From about 1000 A.D to early 1800 (during which time the regional languages developed)

Ø The Modern Period: it is influenced by European culture.

·In the first two periods, most literature was in verse or in the form of an epigram (a short, clever poem), though prose was also used.

·In modern period, the use of prose has become fully developed.

·Indian literature has been written in many languages. Each language has made its own contribution and expressed its uniqueness.

·The literature of a particular language has its own special form, symbols and nuances. Therefore, it is more logical to say that there are as many literatures in Indiaas languages which have flowered into literature.

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We all are aware that current affairs play an important role in UPSC Civil Services Exam preparation as the questions related to current affairs are seen in all 3 stages of exam that are, Prelims, Mains and Interview.

There is no defined syllabus for current affairs. Anything and everything under the sun come within the confines of current affairs.

As per UPSC syllabus candidate must have knowledge about current events about national and international events. It depends on the candidate himself or herself to prepare for this section.

As per the analysis of previous years papers one must prepare themselves for current affairs section by thorough reading of newspapers and magazines. The best newspapers recommended by the UPSC toppers are:

The Hindu

It is the most reliable newspaper. It does not play with words and give point to point information. It covers all the important details. The opinion section holds great importance and students even make notes based on the facts and information included in the opinion section. All the current affairs news is covered in the newspaper. It is one of the best sources of information for current affairs for UPSC IAS preparation.

The Indian Express

This paper is useful to read both positive and negative thoughts of any topic. Aspirants can read it to get neutral knowledge. The explanation page of the newspaper holds importance. Every important event is explained in concise manner. This would help in the preparation of current affairs for UPSC IAS preparation.

Business Standard

This newspaper covers all the national and international economic situation very well. Aspirants can read it to gain knowledge about economic crisis or any deals done between the countries. It covers the economic aspects of the country and apart from that the column section explains the necessary points clearly.

Hindi language aspirants can refer Hindi list of newspapers given below:

Dainik Bhaskar

It is the most read Hindi newspaper. They cover all the current affairs on daily basis. The column section of the newspaper covers the in depth analysis of the events taking place in the country. It is one of the best Hindi newspapers for UPSC IAS preparation.

Dainik Jagran

It is also reliable source of information and is associated with National newspaper association. One can rely on this newspaper for the current affair news

Navbharat

Aspirants can refer this newspaper to read national current affairs content. They rely more on Indian contemporary issues.

Best Magazines For Upsc Ias Preparation

Magazines are extra reading materials which are written by authors, experts and it helps candidate to expand the range of opinions. Aspirants just need to read some articles from these magazines to score great marks. In addition, they can note down the important points that can help them in writing essays and mains answers.

Yojana

It is the best magazines recommended by UPSC toppers. It deals with socio economic issues of Indian interests and is published by I&B Ministry, Government of India.

It is observed that every year one or two essays is seen in UPSC exam directly from this magazine. It covers important topics like federalism, agriculture, and budget etc. It is a government magazine so you will get to read both pros and cons of every topic. One can rely on

Kurukshtera

This is published by Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India. This deals with all rural and agricultural issues and as per the trend UPSC examinations are dealing now with environment and rural issues.

Economic And Political Weekly

This magazine deals with all economic and political issues, sociology, and environmental issues. Here the articles are published by experts, political activists. The analysis covered in this magazine is in-depth. It is not required to read it thoroughly for current affairs for UPSC IAS preparation. However, if one can avail the short points of the articles then it can make great difference in the level of preparation.

Down To Earth

This magazine deals with topics like housing, health, and environment. As the weightage of environment related issues have increased in years, therefore it is the best magazine.

World Focus

It is foreign affairs magazine related to Indo-centric issues. Here, you will get to read India’s viewpoint on India foreign relations and the deals made by our Government.

These magazines and newspapers are the best options to prepare for current affairs for UPSC exams as they are reliable and have fact checked information. These are easily available in all parts of our country. All aspirants should go through the list once before starting the preparation.

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Fundamental Rights- Right to Information

Fundamental Rights are not absolute rights, these are restricted rights. The purpose of Fundamental Right is to establish rule of law. On the other hand, if state is given absolute power over the individual, the result would tyranny or state terror. Therefore, there shall be a balance between individual liberty and social needs.

Right to Information

The Constitution of India guarantees the Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression under article 19(1) (a). This right is the fundamental right available to all the citizens. It says that every citizen shall have the right to express himself. In the case of Bennett Coleman v. UOI, AIR 1973, the Supreme Court held that the "Right to Know” also falls under the ambit of Right to Speech and Expression. This was the foundation of Right to Information in India post-independence.

The courts in India have stated time to time, that Right to know the information related to public authorities is a fundamental right. However, this right was never expressly mentioned in the COI. But in year 2005, government passed the Right to Information Act, 2005 which apparently mentioned the right to know of citizens.

History

Every building has a strong foundation, without the foundation no construction can be done. Same is the case with Right to Information in India. It has a very rich historical background which has proved to be the foundation of this legislation.

The very first incident in India, where right to information was mentioned, was in the year 1977. After the Indira Gandhi government imposed the emergency without stating the obvious reasons, the citizens were very unhappy with the government, the Janta party, led by Moraraji Desai promised the people that if they come to the power, they will establish an open government. They promised that the public would be allowed to access the information about the use of power by the government. However, the promise was never fulfilled in a complete sense.

After this event, there were a lot of cases such as- Prabhu Dutt v. UOI, AIR 1982. In this case Supreme Court held that the press is entitled to know news and information regarding the working of the government.

These events were followed by the creation of National Campaign for People’s Right to Information, which was founded with an objective to pass RTI as a law. Finally, the Freedom of Information Bill, 2000 was introduced in the parliament. But due to some drawbacks, this act could not fulfill its objectives.

Then in the year 2005, after a very long struggle, the Right to Information Act, 2005 was passed to provide the citizens the right to know.

Significance of RTI

The Right to Information holds a very decent significance in a democratic country like India. The major points are listed below:

• The most basic reason is that the fundamental rights are the basic structure of Indian Constitution. The rights listed under this part are a mandate that a state has to provide to all its citizens in any condition. One of these rights is the Right to Speech and Expression. This right includes the Right to Information too. Hence the people of India deserve the RTI Act. We deserve to know the information, because we are given the fundamental Right to Know.
• The RTI gives the citizens the opportunity to empower themselves. When the citizens are allowed to ask the government about its functioning and its administration, they feel themselves the part of the country too. It enhances people’s participation in the process of the democracy.
• The Right to Information promotes Transparency and Accountability in the minds of citizens. When the working of the government is done in open environment, it builds trust.
• The access to information is provided to every section of the society. All the weak sections also feel empowered by this right.
• The act has promoted a sense of honesty in the officials, because they know that their work can be audited at any time by the public. The attitude of public servants has changed after the formation of this act.

Challenges against RTI in India

Right to Information has a lot of challenges in its way, some of them are-

• The majority of Indian population is either uneducated or unaware, because of what these people are unable to exercise their rights. The right to information also hides somewhere behind this illiteracy and ignorance.
• There are a number of pending cases at both the state and the central level, so the information is sometimes not disseminated at the right time.
• Many reports show, that in the case of mismanagement the ratio of action taken is very less. Even after getting exposed, such departments are not given their due punishment.
• A lot of deaths have been reported of RTI activists, who were trying to expose some authorities.
• A major challenge is the misuse of RTI. Some people file the request of information under this act just to become famous or for some malicious reasons. Some people seek information to fulfil their personal interests also.
• There is some legislation like the "Official Secrets Act, 1923” which restrict the flow of information by the government.

Recent Developments

Recently the Right to Information (Amendment) Bill, 2019 was passed by the parliament. We can count it in development but this development is more negative than positive. The major backbone of the RTI Act, 2005 was the independency of Chief Information Commissioner and the State Information Commissioners from the government. The recent amendment changes this and states that the tenure of these officials would be determined by the central government. It encroaches upon the freedom of these officials from the legislature. The amendment bill also allows the government to fix the salary of these officials; they can decrease it from today also.

These developments will affect the Right to Information badly, as the Information Commissioners would be more inclined toward the government rather than the citizens.

Conclusion

Right to Information is the much-needed right in this country. If we look at the current scenario, we can easily say that the transparency of the RTI is being affected by legislative decisions. To solve all these issues, the public institutions need to be more open about the information. Their willingness will make it easy for the public to gather information. Apart from this, there are a lot of matters pending in the country. We need to compile the similar complaints together and then resolve them to save time and efforts both. The Right to Information needs to be managed with the Right to Privacy of the citizens, which is also a significant right in itself. And at the large, the public needs to be informed about their rights, and then only we can utilize this act as per its best capacity.

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By Federalismwe mean a structure of government where the functions, powers and authority are divided between two levels of government i.e. - Central government and State Government. These two levels are separate and independent of each other in terms of exercising their powers. This system is an antithesis of Unitary System, where the country is governed by a single level of government and this sole institution holds the supreme position in the state. Cooperative Federalism is a type of Federalism, which we’ll be discussing today.

Definition

Cooperative Federalism is the branch of Federalism which envisages that all the levels of governance, which are- central, state and local bodies, should cooperate with one another in order to achieve collective goals for the benefit of the society. All these bodies put their collaborative efforts towards a common goal and strive to achieve that for the growth of country. No level of government is supreme in this Federalism; all share their place at a horizontal line.

Examples

Examples of Cooperative Federalism might be given by following situation-

• "There is said to be Cooperative Federalism, when Central and State Governments have a healthy nexus between their functions. Neither the Central Government imposes some random provisions upon the States nor the States nor do Local Bodies work in a manner that is completely antithesis to the working of Central Government.”

• "If the Central Government wants that railway stations shall be well maintained in each state, it might provide a financial aid to those states for the completion of this task. This aid may be given for the purchase of some equipment or to hire labours and workers.”

How it Works in India?

Indian Constitution has been given the label of "Quasi-Federal” by Prof. K. C. Wheare. We can also call it a mixture of federal principles and unitary principles. However, there is no mention of word ‘Federalism’ in India Constitution anywhere; it is apparently seen in the functioning of governments in the country. Governance in India is done by following federal principles with a slight tilt toward unitary formulas. India has not adopted a full flesh version of Federalism; rather it has a stronger centre which is created by joining many states. Now, here is the important thing- some people see the stronger tendency of centre as opposite to Federalism, however this is something which is the steam of Federalism. A stronger centre is necessary to bound states in it and to promote a better functioning of the government. Following are some examples of Cooperative Federalism in India-

• Article 1 of COI- The very first article of the Constitution provides that "India shall be a Union of States”. This very provision provides for the integrity among the Union and the States, as one is inseparable to another. This was the first idea of cooperation among states and the centre.
• Seventh Schedule- The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India consists of three lists, namely- the Union list, the State list and the Concurrent list. These lists contain matters of national importance which have been divided between Central and State Government to legislate upon. This is an ideal example of coordination among the different levels of government in India.
• Inter State Council- Article 263 of the COI, provides for the establishment of an Inter-State Council by the President, if he believes that such council is necessary to discuss and investigate subjects which have a larger public interest. Also, this council is charged with the duty to make suggestions upon any matter for the better implementation or coordination of policies. This council promotes cooperation and coordination among states.
• Zonal Councils- Section 15 of the State Reorganization Act, 1956 provides for the constitution of zonal councils for all the five zones in India. These councils consist of representatives from every state, union territories and the union. These councils are charged with the function of being an advisory body in any matter in which some states or the union has a common interest. They stem cooperation among the states and the union.
• National Development Council- This council was developed as a functionary under the Planning Commission. This was set up as an agency to support the implementation of five years plan made by the Planning Commission. This council helped in promoting cooperativeness because it had the Prime Minister, Union Cabinet Ministers, Chief Ministers of all states and representatives of Union Territories as its members. However, it has been dissolved after the constitution of Niti Ayog in 2014.
• Niti Ayog- National Institute for Transformation India (NITI AYOG) has replaced the planning commission in 2014. This institution also has the representation of all states, which promotes cooperation.
• GST Council- The Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016 introduced the concept of GST & GST Council. This council shall be making recommendations to the Union and the States on the taxes and surcharges levied by the Union, the States or the Local Bodies. Its members represent all the levels of the government. Therefore, this council ideally promotes cooperation among the Centre, States and Local Bodies.
• Taxation Powers- Article 269A (1) of the COI provides that, the GST Council and not the Finance Commission has the powers to make recommendations about distribution of taxes in interstate trade. This provision is very important in respect of economic cooperation of states because states have a right to vote in the GST Council. Similarly, Article 270 provides that the tax collected by the Union under article 246A and under Inter-State Trade, shall be distributed among the states too.

Conclusion

It is true that in our country Constitution is supreme and its provisions are followed everywhere, but India has not been able to incorporate Cooperative Federalism in its complete sense. People of India have always advocated this concept but in practical life there are certain things that have proved to be a hindrance for the adoption of complete Federalism. Though states have been given due autonomy in their functions, their freedom is subject to superiority of Central Government. Hence, the upper hand of Central Government in every matter and incorporation of unitary features in our Constitution prove that we still have a long journey to accept this ideology.

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